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Qg 

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VIEW OF MOUNTAINS. 

4 




Bindeo Eoosth- 
Sta. Martha. 

St. Elias. 
Ararat. 


Mt. Rosa. 
Sloona Loa. 


Mt. Erebus. 
Atlas. 
Pyrenees. 
Lebanon. 

St. Golhard. 

Apennines. 

Olympus. 
Carpathian 
' & Sinai. 
Dofrafield. 


Black Mts. 
Ruan Mt. 

Ural. 

Kalahdin. 

Otter Peak. 
Roni d Top, 
Uartz Mts. 

Mt. Zion. 

Madrid. 

Highlands of 
Iludson R. 


J 



















































MODERN 


SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, 

ON THE PLAN OP 

COMPARISON AND CLASSIFICATION; 

WITH 


AN ATLAS, 

EXHIBITING, ON A NEW PLAN, THE 

PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNTRIES, 

AND THE 


COMPARATIVE SIZE OF COUNTRIES, TOWNS, RIVERS, AND 

MOUNTAINS. 



WILLIAM C. WOODBRIDGE, 

MEMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES OF PARIS, 
FRANKFORT, AND BERLIN. 


WITH IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS 


SECOND EDITION 


HARTFORD: 

BELKNAP AND HAMERSLEY. 

1845 

V 




4/488 


TOPICS FOR REVIEW. 

Repetition and review are among the most important methods of in¬ 
struction. The table of contents will furnish the means for a general re¬ 
view of this work. The great features of each country may be reviewed by 
the aid of the following list of topics, either from memory, or bj^ direct ref¬ 
erence to the book and atlas. When circumstances permit, it is important 
to test the student’s knowledge of general terms, by requiring him to repeat 
definitions and descriptions of them minutely. 


Review the account of each country, and describe it according to the foL 
lowing list of topics : — 


Situation. 
Latitude. 
Longitude. 
Boundaries. 
Seas, Bays, 
Gulfs, and 
Sounds. 
Straits. 
Peninsulas. 
Capes. 
Islands. 


Mountains. 
Highlands. 
Terraces and 
Lowlands. 
Rivers. 

Lakes. 

Canals. 

Navigation. 

Zone and Re¬ 
gion. 
Climate. 

Soil. 


Productions. 

Minerals. 

Capital. 

Principal 

Towns. 

Remarkable 

Features. 

Inhabitants. 

Language. 

Religion. 

Civilization. 

Government. 


Education. 

Agriculture. 
Manufactures. 
CoaiMERCE, Ex¬ 
ports AND Tftl- 
PORTS. 

From the Atlas, 
Square Miles. 
Population. 
Population to a 
Square Mile. 


Su^ACE. 


NOTICE TO THE SECOND EDITION 


In revising this work, the attempt has been made not only to correct the 
errors to which a first edition, prepared under peculiar disadvantages, is in¬ 
cident, but to render it more simple and complete in the details of its plan, 
and thus more easy to use both to the teacher and pupil, without making 
such changes as would embarrass either. 

With this view especially, that portion of the work designed for the first 
course of study has been diminished 5 the questions (originally made from 
other maps, while the new maps were in the hands of the engraver) have 
been carefully revised, with the aid of a skilful teacher, in the daily practice 
of instruction; and distinct references made to the maps to be consulted. 

The engravings have been, to a great extent, renewed and improved. 
Several have also been added, and especially an outline map of the German 
States, which, it is hoped, will render this “ labyrinth of Geography ” more 
intelligible, and a Geographical Clock, which shows the difference of time 
between VVashington and the principal cities of the world. 

The table of contents will not only facilitate reference to the work, but, 
in connection with the topics above given, will render it easy for the pupil 
to review the whole. 

The atlas has been improved by the addition of a Political Map of the 
United States, Texas, Mexico, and the British Provinces, and several small 
marginal maps of importance. The Map and Chart of the World have 
been re^ngraved more clearly and correctly ; and the remaining maps have 
been carefully revised, in order to remove obscurities and errors. 

A painful course of illness has long delayed the author’s labors 5 but the 
revision and approbation of every page of the book by skilful and practical 
men, leads him to hope that it will now be found free from important de¬ 
fects. He is especially indebted to the faithful aid of W. J. Adams, Esq., 
Master of the Hancock School in Boston. 


Eutered according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1845, by WILLIAM C. WOODBRIDGE, 
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 








Pritparatory Les¬ 
sons, .ix. 

Pictures and Maps,.ix. 

Land and Water,.xi. 

Towns and Boundaries, xiii. 

Horizon and Zenith,...xiv. 

Points of the Compass, xiv. 

Continents,.xvi. 

Shape of the Earth,., .xvii. 

Attraction of Gravita¬ 
tion,.xviii. 

Picture and Map of the 
Earth,.xix. 

Climates and Zones, ..xxi. 

Population and Govern¬ 
ment,.xxiii. 

Productions and Manu¬ 
factures, .xxiv. 


Mathematical Ge- 


OGRAPHY, . 

.25 

The Horizon,. 


Points of the Compas 

s,. .26 

Form of the Earth, . 

....28 

Axis and Poles of 

the 

Earth,. 

....30 

Meridians and Longi- 

tudes,. 

....30 

Equator, Latitude, 

and 

Parallels,. 


Measures,. 

....33 

Representations of 

the 

Earth’s Surface,.... 


Globes, Maps, 

and 

Charts, 36. Profiles, .42 


Elements of Phys¬ 
ical AND Politi¬ 
cal Geography,..45 
Parts of the Earth,.45 

JVatural Divisions of Land 

and fVater, .46 

Great Divisions,.46 

Subdivisions of Land and 

Water,.48 

Solid Body of the Earth,.53 

The Sea,.55 

The Oceans,.58 

Coasts of the Oceans,.. .60 

The Land,.61 

The Continents,.62 

Grand Divisions of the 

Land,.64 

Characteristics of the 

Grand Divisions,. 66 

Political Divisions,.67 

States and Governments, 68 
Divisions of States,.70 j 


Forms and Subdivisions 


of the LandL, .71 

North America,.72 

Form and Coast,.72 

Natural Divisions,.73 

Political Divisions,.73 

United States,.75 

Divisions,.76 

Government,.81 

South America,.83 

Natural and Political Di¬ 
visions, .84 

Europe,.85 

Form and Coast,.86 

Natural and Political Di¬ 
visions, .87 

Asia,.89 

Political Divisions,.91 

Africa,.92 

Natural and Political Di¬ 
visions, .93 

Oceanica,.95 

Physical Geogra¬ 
phy, .97 

Surface of the Land, .97 

Plains,.98 


Savannas and Steppes,..98 
Marshes, 98. Deserts,..99 
Elevation of Plains,... .100 
Mountains and Valleys, 100 
Valleys and Passes,... .101 
Snows and Glaciers, ...102 
Uses of Mountains,....103 
Height of Mountains,. .104 


Islands,.104 

Interior of the Earth, ..10.5 

Caves,.106 

Soils, Rocks, &c.,.107 

Volcanoes and Earth¬ 
quakes,...108 

Waters of the Land,... .Ill 
Springs, 111. Rivers, ..112 
Sources and Falls,.... .113 
Course, 114. Mouths,. 117 
Floods — Principal Riv¬ 
ers of the World,.... 118 


Lakes, 119. Canals,.. .121 


The Atmosphere,.122 

Wind, 123. Rain,.124 

Temperature,.125 

Regions of Tempera¬ 
ture, .127 

Plants, Climates, and 

Productions,.128 

Animals,.133 


Civil Geography, 139 
Man — Races of Men,..139 


Nations and Languages, 141 

Religions, ..142 

Laws and Customs,.... 143 

Knowledge,.144 

Occupations,.146 

Arts and Manufactures, 148 

Commerce,.149 

Civilization,.150 

Buildings, 152. Roads, 154 

Statistical Geog¬ 
raphy,.155 

North America,.155 

Highlands, 155. Basins, 158 
Declivities, Terraces, 

and Lowlands,.159 

Physical and Political 

Divisions,.160 

Navigation,.162 

Climates and Produc¬ 
tions.163 

Inhabitants,.165 

J^orthem Countries,....166 

Russian America,.166 

British America,.167 

New Britain,.167 

Canada,.168 

New Brunswick and 

Nova Scotia,.169 

Newfoundland,.170 

Middle Regions, .170 

United States,.170 

Physical Divisions, ... .171 
Atlantic Lowland and 

Terrace,.173 

Apalachian Mountains 
and Table Lands,.... 174 

Crest and Passes,.175 

Western Terrace,.176 

Declivities of the Chip- 
pewan Mountains,.. .177 

Navigation,.178 

Climate and Produc¬ 
tions, .180 

Inhabitants,.181 

District of Columbia,182 

Eastern States, .183 

Maine, 183. New Hamp¬ 
shire, 184. Vermont, 185 

Massachusetts,.186 

Rhode Island,.188 

Connecticut,.189 

Middle Grain Stoles,... .190 

Now York,.190 

New Jerse)^,.191 

Pennsylvania,.193 































































































IV 


CONTENTS 


Delaware — Maryland, .195 
Virginia,.197 

JV*. W. Grain States ,.. .198 
Ohio, 198. Indiana,.. .199 
Illinois, 200. Michigan, 201 
Wisconsin Territory, ..202 
Iowa, 203. Missouri,. .204 
Kentucky,..205 

S. and S. Western, or 
Cotton States, .206 

Tennessee,.206 

North Carolina,.207 

South Carolina,.208 

Georgia, 209. Alabama, 210 
Florida — Mississippi,. .211 

Louisiana,.212 

Arkansas,.213 

Indian T.—-Missouri T. 214 
Oregon T., 215. ''I'exa9,216 

Southern Countries,....“HIQ 

Mexico,.218 

Central America,.219 

West Indies,.220 

Cities of N. America,. .222 
Travels on the Map, .. .225 

South America,.227 

Highlands,.227 

Declivities,.229 

Lowlands...230 

Physical and Political 

Divisions,.231 

Navigation,.232 

Climate and Produc¬ 
tions, .233 

Inhabitants,.234 

J^orthem Countries ,... .236 
Guiana — Colombia,... .236 

Venezuela,.237 

New Grenada,.238 

Middle Countries, .238 

Ecuador, 238. Peru, . .240 
Bolivia, 241. Brazil,. .242 

Southern Countries,... .243 
Chili, 243. La Plata,. .244 
Uruguay — Paraguay,. .245 

Patagonia,.245 

Islands of S. America, .246 
Cities ofS. America, ..246 
Travels on the Map,...247 

Polar Regions,.248 

Arctic Regions,.248 

Greenland,.249 

Antarctic Regions,.249 

Europe,.250 

North-eastern Lowland, 251 

Central Highlands,.252 

Lowlands and Decliv¬ 
ities of Central Eu¬ 
rope, .255 

Peninsulas and Islands,.255 


Physical and Political 

Divisions,.257 

Navigation, ..258 

Climate and Productions 259 
Inhabitants,.261 

Countries of Europe, .. .262 
Kingdom of Great Brit¬ 
ain and Ireland,.262 

England and Wales,... .262 
Scotland, 264. Ireland, 265 

Morthern Countries,... .266 

Denmark,.266 

Hamburg and Lubeck,. .268 
Sweden, 268. Norway, 269 

Lapland,.270 

Russian Empire,.271 

Russia in Europe,.271 

The Caucasus, Georgia, 

and Circassia,.273 

Poland,.274 

Middle Countries, .274 

Holland, 274. Belgium, 275 

France,.276 

Switzerland,.277 

Germany,.279 

Southern States, .280 

Austria,.282 

Bavaria, Wurtemberg, 
and Baden,.283 

Central States, .284 

Saxony and the Saxon 

States,.284 

Hessian States,.284 

Nassau,.285 

JVorthern States, .285 

Prussia, 285. Hanover, 286 
Oldenburg, Brunswick, 
Holstein and Meck¬ 
lenburg, .286 

Southern Peninsulas,, .. .287 
Spain, 287. Portugal, .289 
Italy,.289 

The Grecian Peninsula, 291 
Turkey, 291. Greece,..293 

Ionian Isles,.294 

Cities of Europe,.294 

Travels on the Map,....296 

Asia,.297 

Highlands,.297 

Declivities and Low¬ 
lands,.299 

Physical and Political 

Divisions,.300 

Navigation,.301 

Climate and Produc¬ 
tions,.302 

Inhabitants,.302 

JVorthem Asia, .303 

Russia in A. or Siberia, 303 


Middle Countries, ......304 

Turkey in Asia,.304 

Armenia, Koordistan, 

and Aderbijan,.306 

Persia,.307 

Eastern Iran,.308 

Independent Tartary, ..309 

Chinese Empire,.309 

China,.310 

Chin Tartary, — Japan, 311 

Southern Countries, ....313 

Arabia,.313 

Hindco.stan,.314 

Chm-lndia,.315 

Burmah — Siam,.316 

Anam, or Tonkin,.317 

Malacca,.317 

Cities of Asia,.318 

Travels on the Map,....319 

Africa,.320 

Highlands,.320 

Terraces and Lowlands,321 
Physical and Political 

Divisions,.323 

Navigation,.323 

Climate and Produc¬ 
tions,.324 

Inhabitants,.324 

JVortkem Africa, .325 

Barbary, 325. Egypt,..327 

Middle Regions, .328 

Nubia— Abyssinia,... .328 

Central Africa, .329 

Soudan,.330 

West Africa, .330 

Senegambia,.331 

Northern Guinea,.331 

Foreign Colonies,.332 

Southern Regions, .332 

Southern Guinea,.333 

Eastern Coast of Afr.,...333 

South Africa, .334 

Colony of the Cape,... .335 

African Islands,.335 

Cities of Africa,.336 

OCZANICA,.338 

Malaysia,.339 

Australia, .340 

North Au.stralian Is., ..341 

New Holland,.341 

Van Diemen’s Land,....342 

Polynesia,.342 

Cities of Oceanica,.344 

Astronomy,.345 

The Solar System,.345 

Day and Night,.347 

Seasons,. 349 


Difference of Time,... .349 
Geographical Clock,....350 















































































































PREFACE 


Twenty-five years ago, not a school Geography existed in our country, 
within the author’s knowledge, which was fully adapted to the purpose of 
making a child familiar with the outlines of countries on the maps; and it 
was deemed necessary to describe every boundary and river in detail, as if 
the works were written for the blind. JMo school Geography is known in 
which a course of comparison and classification was employed, to enable 
the pupil to understand the resemblances and differences of the various 

E ortions of the world — none in which any conception was given of un- 
nown objects and customs by means of engravings, or. in which the 
imagination and memory were aided by emblematical maps, exhibiting the 
condition of countries, and the comparative size of cities. 

The Rudiments of Geogr^hy was prepared on a new plan, designed to 
accomplish these objects. The approbation which it received from the 
best teachers, and its almost unprecedented circulation, gave ample evi¬ 
dence that it was adapted to the minds of the young, and tlie wants of our 
schools. This fact has been confirmed by the involuntary testimony of 
those who have imitated that work, and by the strong language in which 
they recommend their books j and their obvious injustice to the original 
authors only renders this testimony more decisive. Years have passed 
since circumstances, which it is not necessary to mention here, have for¬ 
bidden that revision and adaptation of the first work to the new state of the 
world and of the schools, which were imperiously demanded j and it is in 
some respects entirely obsolete. Still, there are excellent teachers who 
prefer using that book, and supplying its defects themselves, rather than 
employ the more recent, but less thorough works of others, who have 
adopted the same plan, but have introduced features destructive of its 
proper influence. 

To abandon principles thus fully tested and approved, would be evidently 
unwise. But the modes of applying them are endlessly various; and twenty 
years have furnished many opportunities for devising and observing, at 
home and abroad, new methods of comparing, classifying, and arranging the 
diversified subjects of Geography. The present work is the result of much 
reflection and extensive study. It is a new work, with the exception of a 
few pages which have been retained, and, it is believed, is greatly improved 
in simplicity and clearness, as well as accuracy. 

The first object in view is to give the pupil correct ideas of things — of 
the Earth itself — and not merely of the representations of things — or of 
maps of the Earth. 

The attempt is also made to give distinct conceptions of the Earth as it 
came from the hands of the Creator, and to classify the various portions 
of its surface, and the objects upon it, in the new and interesting methods 
which have given to Physical Geography something of the clearness and 
beauty of a science. One map of each grand division is therefore entirely 
devoted to its Physical Geography. 

The sources and nature of political divisions, and other changing works 
of man, are next explained ; and in order that the pupil may acquire dis¬ 
tinct ideas of these, as mere additions to the works of the Creator, they are 



VI 


PREFACE. 


presented on a separate map of each grand division, exhibiting its Politicaj 
Geography. 

At the same time, the various conditions and occupations of men are de¬ 
scribed, that he may gain clear ideas of the meaning of the words State^ 
Government, Arts, Manufactures, Commerce, and Civilization, which 
are so often repeated, like the unknown terms in Algebra, without being 
understood. 

The pupil is not called upon to crowd his mind with separate numbers, — 
which would occupy his time and thoughts to the exclusion of more certain 
and valuable knowledge, — which are seldom retained long, and, if re¬ 
tained, must in many cases be soon forgotten, in order to learn new amd 
more correct statements.* 

In place of this mechanical use of memory, the attempt is made to teach 
the comparative size of rivers, mountains, countries, and cities — their rank 
amoTtg others in the world — and thus to give ideas which are more tangible 
and valuable, more permanently retained, and less liable to change. 

The eye is called in to aid the ear and the imagination, not merely in 
regard to the situation of places as represented on the maps, but also by 
connecting with the outlines of countries on the Moral Chart, the dark¬ 
ness — the light — the crown — the star — the cross — the crescent, or the 
altar, which are the familiar emblems of their state of civilization, govern¬ 
ment, and religion, both in poetry and painting. The climates of various 
portions of the world are indicated on another chart by colors, and the sit¬ 
uation of plants by lines, which show the extent to which they grow. 

In order to save the teacher the pe^lexing task of selecting what is tr> 
be learned at each lesson, the work is divided, by type and numbers, into 
three parts. That portion which is printed on the largest type, and num¬ 
bered I.j is designed for younger pupils, or the first course of study j that 
numbered II«jls intended to be added to this, for the second course j and 
that numbered Xlla^ in the smallest type, should be added to the others, in 
completing the third and last course of study. In this manner, the book 
may be studied, without difficulty, in separate portions. At the same time, 
all that relates to one subject is given in one place, in its proper order, so 
that the advanced pupil may study the whole in one continuous course. 

In order to render terms and descriptions more intelligible to beginners, 
a separate course of “ Preparatory Lessons” is given, to illustrate the most 
difficult words and subjects in a familiar way 5 which it is hoped will be 
found instructive as well as interesting to those for whom it is designed. 

The author is sorry to believe that the works most in use in our schools 
are, in many respects, adapted to injure the young mind, and lower the stand¬ 
ard of instruction, by rendering Geography, to an unhappy extent, a purely 
mechanical study, and by employing methods which are better adapted to 
contract and impair the faculties of the pupil than to enlarge and improve 
them. He alludes particularly to the backward steps that have brough 
recent authors to the old method of “ question and answer” on a subject ot 
science. In this way, “ logic and metaphysics ” were formerly, in the lan¬ 
guage of compilers, made familiar to the dullest mind." But most enlight¬ 
ened instructors, in this country and in Europe, consider this method as 
absurd, in scientific instruction, as the leading-strings and go-carts which 
were formerly used in teaching children to walk. He refers also to ques¬ 
tions on the maps,” which almost nullify their own title, by telling the pupil 
what is on the maps, with initial and final letters, and thus sparing him the 
trouble of using his mind or his eyes. 


* It is remarkable that minds which have been forced to great perfection in 
remembering numbers, often lose, to a considerable extent, the power of retain- 
vng and acquiring other knowledge. 



PHEFACE. 


vii 


The author takes this occasion, as a friend of education, to protest against 
these stultifying methods, (if he may be allowed to use a strange but ex¬ 
pressive word,T which destroy so much of the benefit of instruction in 
Geography, and impair, instead of improving, those habits of observation 
and reflection, on which the success oi the pupil in study, and in future life, 
so much depends. 

To those teachers who will excuse the frank advice of one who has made 
the subject of education a study for many years, he would say, with confi¬ 
dence, that, if they save themselves momentary trouble in this way, they 
can scarcely fail to embarrass the future progress of their pupils, and per¬ 
haps bring dishonor upon themselves, by the evident results of imperfect 
modes of instruction. He earnestly wishes that the united and firm remon¬ 
strances of intelligent teachers may give a different character to our school 
books, in reference to this important subject. 

Instead of pursuing sucJi a course, the author has lost no opportunity of 
bringing into use an important principle of education — that every child 
should be taught, not only to receive with docility the directions and 
instructions of those who are better informed, and to bow with humble faith 
to the revelations of Him who alone is acquainted with the invisible and 
spiritual world, but should also be trained, in all that lies within his knowl¬ 
edge and capacity, to observe, and think, and judge, for himself. Indeed, 
it seems almost treason against our free institutions to educate one who is 
to be an American citizen to receive ideas mechanically, especially at that 
age when the tender mind receives its first, and generally its most perma¬ 
nent, habits of thought and action. 

A residence of several years, at different periods, in the Tropical Regions, 
and in various parts of Europe, has enabled the author to observe exten¬ 
sively for himself; and in London, Paris, Berlin, and other great cities, he 
has found access to the best materials, the most accomplished geographers, 
and the most skilful assistants, in the preparation of maps and tables for 
this and the larger work. While, therefore, it would only betray ignorance 
of the extent and difficulty of the subject to pretend to absolute accuracy 
in Geography, he trusts that he has attained a degree of correctness beyond 
most works of the kind, which have been generally prepared with fewer 
advantages. 

At the moment of beginning to print the Rudiments of Geography, the 
author met with a striking confirmation of its great principles, in learning 
that a similar plan had been devised and adopted by Mrs. Willard, the 
Principal of the Female Seminary at Troy, and employed with great success 
in her celebrated school. In order to avoid the multiplication of school 
books, it w'as deemed advisable that both should unite in support of one set 
of works, and in preparing a Geography, Ancient and Modern, for the 
higher schools, of which an improved edition has just appeared. In a former 
preface, Mrs. Willard remarks, “ Of all branches of study which my pupils 
learn, Geography taught in this manner is that which they most easily call 
to recollection; and this is the case, whether the examination takes place 
after the lapse of a few months, or a few years.'' Her view's are explained 
in the preface to the larger work, to which the author takes pleasure in 
referring. . 

New efforts have been made, at home and abroad, to obtain the best 
views of manners, customs, and objects of interest — not to ornament the 
book, and please the eye, chiefly, but to illustrate and instruct. Some of 
these have been obtained, by permission, from the publisher of Mr. Good¬ 
rich's Pictorial Geography. For others, the author is indebted to the lib¬ 
eral proprietor of the Malte-Brun School Geography. 

1* 


X 


PREPARATORY LESSONS 


[3.] But if 1 measure the 
shape and size of every thing, 
and then draw the outlines 
of the room and the furni¬ 
ture, we shall have a plan or 
map, like this. 

Outlines arc the outside lines 
which mark out the shape of any 
thing. 

D shows the place of the door, 
W the window, B the bookcase, 
and S the sofa; T T are the 
tables, and C C the chairs. 

[4.] A map, you see, is not 
a picture. A map shows the 
outlines of every thing as it 
is, and in the right place. A 
picture shows every thing as 
it seems to be. 



(2) Plan of my Room. 


[5.] I am living in a town named fWderxcJcsled. It lies on the 
sea coast, or edge of the sea. Here is a picture of a part of it, 
drawn as you would see it from a ship sailing by. 



(3) Picture of Fredericksted. 

[6.] But if I could fly over it like a bird, or in a balloon, very 


3. How can J piake a map or plan ? 4. Is a map the same as a picture? What, 
then, does a map show ? What doe.s a picture show ? .'i. What town is men 
tinned ? Where dp.cs it He ’ Hew is the pirture of it drawn ? 















































land and water. 


XI 


high in the air, 1 should see only the lines of the streets, and tlie 
dark squares filled with houses; and this 
would make a plan or map, like that you see 
here, (fig. 4.) which was drawn by measure¬ 
ment 

[7.] Tliis town is on a piece of land 
called St. CroLx, or Santa Cruz, only 30 
miles long, and 5 or G miles broad, which 
lies in tlie midst of the wide waters. A 
piece of land thus surrounded by water is 
called an island. 

[8.] From my window, I can see the^ 
water spreading out until it seems to meet 
the sky; and if I go upon a high hill, I can ( 4 ) pun of Frederickstcd. 
see it all around the island, in a great circle, 

with only a few dark spots, like clouds, here and there, which are 
also islands. This body of water is called the sea. 

LAND AND WATER. 




(5) 3fap of St. Croix, or Santa Cruz. 

[9.] If I should draw a picture of tlie island, it would be impos¬ 
sible to draw the houses and trees large enough to be seen; and 
so I can only show yon a map of it 


6. If I could fly over it, what should 1 see? What would this make ? 7. What 
land is this town on ? How does this land lie ? What is such a piece of land 
called ? 8. What can be seen from the window ? What can be seeix from a high 
hill? L. W- 9. Why cannot I draw a picture of tlie island in this book ? 
What, then, can I show you ? 




















xii 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 


[lO.j In place of the squares and streets of Fredericksted, 1 
have only room to put a little cipher ( o ), which you see close by 
the name. At tire other end of the island you will see anotlier 
little cipher ( o ), which marks the place of another town, named 
Chi'istiansled. 

[11.] On each side of Fredericksted, the land bends in as if it 
had been hollowed out by the water; and near Christiansted, it 
bends in still more. Such a part of the sea is called a hay. A 
large bay is sometimes called, in Geography, a gulf. 

[12.] Ships from sea come into tlie bay, and anchor before Fred¬ 
ericksted ; and hence it is called a seaport. The place where tliey 
anchor is called a road. 1 suppose tliis is because it is open at 
both ends, like a road on the land. 

[13.] Near Christiansted, you see tliat a small part of the ocean 
is almost surrounded by land, and ships can anchor there also. 
But it is called a harbor, because it is almost enclosed or shut in 
by land, so that ships are sheltered from the winds and waves. A 
harbor is a small, sheltered bay. 

[14.] The entrance is called the moidh of the harbor ; and that 
of Christiansted is very narrow, because a row of rocks runs before 
it. Such a row of rocks is called a reef. 

[15.] Do you see that part of the land on the lower side of tlie 
map, near Fredericksted, which stretches out into the sea, and is 
almost surrounded by water ? It is thus made almost an island, 
and in Geography it is called a peninsidu ; from the Latin words 
pent, almost, and insula, an island. 

[IG.] The point at tlie end of this peninsula is called Sandy 
Point ; and such a point is generally called, by geographers, a 
cape. You see, too, tliat tlie end of the island on the right hand 
is a peninsula, Avith a cape at tlie end of it. 

[17.] The outside of any thing solid is called the surface. Thus 
we walk on tlie surface of tlie earth. Part of the surface of the 
head is called the face; and so tlie suiface of the land is often 
called the face of the country. 

[18.] The face of the country in Santa Cruz is uneven. In some 
places, it rises into hills; and on one side into very high hills, 
called mountains. They are marked on a map by shaded lines, as 


10. How is the place of the town marked ? What town is marked on the other 
end of the island ? 11. IIow is the land on each side of Fredericksted ? What 

is this part of the sea called ? What is a gulf.? 12. Why is Fredericksted called 
a seaport.? What is the place called where ships anchor? Why is it so named ? 
13. What do you see near Christiansted ? What is it called ? 14. What is the 
entrance of the harbor called ? What is there before it ? What is a row of rocks 
called ? 15. What do you see on the lower side of the map ? What is this called 
in Geography 16. What point is at the end of this peninsula ? What is such a 
point called by geographers ? What can you say of the end of the island on the 
right hand ? 17. What is surface ? What is the face of the pountry ? 18. What 
can you say of tlie surface of Santa Cruz ? • 



TOWNS AND BOUNDARIES. 


xm 


at M. The hollows between tlie hills and mountains are called 
valleys. 

[19.] In otlier places, there are no liills ; Urn land is level, and is 
called a plain. 

[20.] In some places, water rises in springs., from tlie reservoirs 
or cisterns which tlie Creator has formed "in tlie earth. It runs 
away to the sea in little streams called rivulets, or brooks. Large 
streams are called rivers. 

[21.] Rivers and rivulets are both represented on a map by 
crooked lines, like tliat near Fredericksted. (R, fig. 4, p. xi.) 

[22.] The rivulet R runs into a low place, where it spreads out 
into a broad, still piece of ivater (L), which is called a pond, or 
lagoon. Large i)onds are called laJces. 

[23.] Around the lagoon is a spot of ground always wet It is 
called a marsh, or swamp. 

TOWNS AND BOUNDARIES. 

[24.] A collection of houses built on streets, like Fredericksted, 
is generally called a town. A very large town is called a city. A 
village is a smaller place, with scattered Jiouses. 

[25.] There are only two towns in Santa Cruz. The people live 
on plantations, or large farms, with only a few houses for the owner 
and tliose that Avork on tlie plantation. 

[26.] The plantations are separated from each other, sometimes 
by Avails, or ditches, or roads, and sometimes only bylines betAveen 
one stone, or post, and anotlier. All tliese separations are like tlie 
fences round a farm or yard, and are called boundaries. 

[27.] Boundaries arc marked on a map by dotted lines. There 
is not room to mark the boundaries of tlie plantations on the map 
of Santa Cruz; but you can see dotted lines dividing tlie island 
into nine parts. 

[28.] These parts or divisions are called districts. In other 
countries, such divisions are often called counties, or shi7'es, and 
sometimes provinces, when they are large. 

[29.] The double lines mark tlie roads on Avhich carnages can go 
tlirough tlie island. 

Do you live in a city, or a town, or a village ? Do you live on a farm, or 
a plantation ? Can you see the ocean 1 Is your place a seaport 1 If it is. 


What are valleys ? 19. What is a plain ? 20. How does water rise from the 
ground ? How docs it run to the sea ? What are larger streams called ? 21. IIow 
are rivers and rivulets represented on the map ? 22. What is a pond, or lagoon ? 
What are large ponds called ? 23. What do you find around the lagoon near Fred¬ 
ericksted ? What Is it called ? “P, B. 24. AVhat is a town ? What is a city ? 

A village ?■ 25. IIoaa' many towns in Santa Cruz ? How do the people live there? 
26. How are these plantations separated from each other ? Wliat are these sep¬ 
arations like on a farm ? What arc they called ? 27. IIoav are boundaries marked 
on a map ? Are there any boundaries on this map? Into how many parts do 
they divide the island ? 28, What are they call -d ? What are they called in 
other countries ? 29. What do the double lines mark ? 




XIV 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 


does it lie on a bay ? £Ias it a harbor, or a road ? Is there any land near 
you jutting out into tlie water, so as to form a peninsula, or cape 1 Do you 
live on an island ? Are there any hills or mountains near you ? Is there 
any rivulet, or river, or pond, or lake ? Have you ever seen a plain 1 Is 
there any town, or city, or village near you ? Can you describe the bound¬ 
aries of your farm, or of the town you live in ? 

[30.] And now that I have given you some account of Santa 
Cruz, I should like to tell you tvhere it is, and which way I came 
to it from the United States. But I must first explain to you the 
horizon^ and the points of the compass. 

nOPaZON AND ZENITH. 

[31.] The line, or circle, where tlie earth and sky seem to meet, 
is called the horizon. When I was a child, 1 longed to go to it, 
and I supposed it was the end of the v.’orld. 

A ciKCLK is a line drawn round a point in the 
middle, which is called the centre, and is every 
where equally distant from the centre, as in fig. G. 

[32.] But when I Avent to the hills and 
houses that seemed to be in the horizon, I 
saw other hills and houses beyond it, and 
anotlier circle around me. I found that the 
horizon Avas only an imaginary circle, Avhich 
took in all that I could see at once, and that 
I stood in the centre of it. I saAv, too, that 
every place had its OAvn horizon. (b) A Circle. 

The horizon is the boundary, or outside line, of 
our sight; and in an open place, we can see the same distance eA'ery way. 
Therefore the most distant things we can see must be “ equally distant 
from the centre” where we stand, and the horizon must be a circle. {See 
Pig. G.) 

1magin.\uy is that which seems to be, but is not real. 

[33.] When the sun first appears in sight above our horizon, Ave 
say it rises ; Avhen it disappears below the horizon, we say it sets. 

[34.] The point immediately over our heads is called the zenith, 
and AAdien the sun, or moon, or a star, is on the zenith, Ave say it is 
vertical, from the Latin Avord vertex, the top. 

POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 

[35.] That part of the horizon Avhere the sun rises is called tlie 
East, and the part AA’here it sets is called tlie fVest. East and West 
are exactly opposite each otlier. 



H. Z. 31. What is the horizon ? What is a circle ? 32. What, do w'e find 
w’hen we go to places which seem to he on this circle ? AVhat kind of a circle, 
then, is the horizon ? IIow^ much does it take in ? Whereabout in it do we stand ? 
Has every place the same horizon ? 33. AVhen do we say the sun rises? AVhen 
do VA'e say' it sets ? 34. What is the zenith ? What does vertical mean ? 

CJo 3.A. Wiiich part of the horizon is East: Which is AVest ? How are East 
and We'd with r.'gard to cm It etle r ? 



POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 


XV 


[3().] If you watch the sun, you will find that at noon 
shines on the same side of the house, 
or of a post, and that side is called 
the South. The shadow points to¬ 
wards that part of the horizon which 
is opposite the sun, and that side is 
called the JVbiih. So you see that 
North and South are exactly opposite 
to each other; and each of tliem is 
half way between East and West on 
the horizon, as in fig. 7. 

In the United States, the sun never 
shines on the north side of a house, or a 
tree, in winter, and very little in summer j 
and so that side is generally the coldest. 

Hence the moss generally grow's thickest 
on the north side of a tree j and travellers 
sometimes find out North in the woods by this mark. 


it always 



Chief Points of the Compass. 


[37.] If you draw a line along the shadow of tlie house, or a 
perpendicular post, like that in tlie engraving (8), at noon, it will 
run exactly Noitli and Soutli. Such a line is called a noon line. 


or, in Geography, a meridian., 



(8) Noon Line. 


(from the Latin Avord meridies, 
noon-day,) because the sun will 
always cast the shadoAv on it at 
noon. 

Perpendicular means erect, or 
standing straight up, without leaning 
to one side; so that the angles, or 
corners, on each side are equal j as 
in figure 9. The angles are then 
called right angles. 



'S 



•3 






a. 



Horizontal line. 

(9) 

We can find out when a post is 
perpendicular by a plumb-line, or a 
weight hung on a string; for the 
v.^eight will always hang perpendic¬ 
ularly to the earth’s surface. 


36. How does the sun shine at noon ? Which way does it cast the shadow .J* 
What is the part of the sky called wliere the sun is at noon ? What is the part 
called towards which the shadow points ! Ilowq then, are North and South, with 
regard to each other How are they with regard to East and West.^ How do 
travellers in the woods sometimes find out North ? 37. How can you draw a line 
North and South ? When will the sun cast a shadow along this line ? What 
is it called ? What does perpendicular mean ? 

O 

















XVI 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 


[38.] If you stand witli your face towards the Noith, East will 
be on your right hand, West on your left, and Soutli beliind you; 
as in the engraving 8, p. xv. 

[39.] Maps are generally, drawn so tliat East is on the right 
hand. West on tlie left, Noith at the top, and Soutli at the bottom 
of the map. 

[40.] If we hang a magnetic needle, or a magnetized piece of 
steel, on a pivot, so that it can turn round, one end will always 
point toAvards tlie Nortli, and tlie other toAvards the Soutli; and so 
it will ahvays be on a line with the meridian. Such a needle, in a 
box, forms Oie instrument called a compass. 

[41.] A compass is used to point out North, Soutli, East, and 
West, when Ave cannot see the sun. For this reason, these points 
are called points of the compass. 

[42.] And noAv 1 can tell you Avhere Santa Cruz is. When Ave 
left the United States to come to Santa Cruz, Ave sailed from Bos¬ 
ton nearly toAvards tlie South, about 100 miles a day, and in 15 
days Ave aiaived here. This shows that Santa Cruz is 1500 miles 
soutli of Boston, and that Boston is 1500 miles north of Santa 
Cruz. Santa Cruz is one of many islands Avhich are called the 
West India Islands, or West Indies. 

CONTINENTS. 

Boston, Spptember, 1843. 

[43.] I have noAv returned to our own country. When we sailed 
Nortli from the West India Islands, on our Avay to the United 
States, we found land extending several thousand miles along the 
sea. Having landed in the United States, A\^e find that we must 
travel Avestward several tliousand miles before Ave can reach the 
sea on the other side. This land is America^ and it is as large as 
200,000 such islands as Santa Cruz. 

[44.] There is one other piece of land, larger tlian America, and 
each of them is called a continent. America is the Western Con¬ 
tinent., and contains North America, in Avhich Ave live, and South 
America. The other is the Eastern Continent., and contains Eu- 


38. If you stand facing the North, which way is E.ast Which way West ? 
Which way South ? 39. Where are East, West, North, and South, on a map? 
40. How does a magnetic needle always point? On what line will it always 
be ? What is a compass ? 41. How is it used ? What are North, South, East, 
and West called ? 42. How must you sail in going to Santa Cruz from Boston ? 
How long does it take to go ? How far is it from Boston ? Which way ? Which 
way is Boston from Santa Cruz? What are the islands called among which 
Santa Cruz is? C. 43. If we sail North from the West Indies, what do we 
find ? If we go on shore, how far West must we travel to reach the sea again ? 
What land is this ? 44. Is there any other piece of land as large ? What is each 
of them called? Which is the Western Continent? What does it contain? 
What is the other continent called ? What does it contain ? 



SHAPE^ OF THE EARTH. 


XVll 


rope, Asia, and Africa. We find, on both continents, many high 
mountains, and large rivers, and great lakes. 

How wonderful is the power of tlie Creator, who made these 
vast bodies of land, and the sea that rolls its waves around them! 
and who says to the sea, “ Thus far shalt thou come, but no far¬ 
ther ! ” How kind he is, to water the eartli witli springs, and lakes, 
and streams! 


SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 


[45.] When I saw a ship from 
my window coming towards 
Santa Cruz, 1 could always see 
her topsails before I could see 
the hull or body of the ship, as 
we do the top of a carriage which 
is coming over a hill. Thus, in 
the engraving (10), we can, of the 
most distant ships, see the sails 
only. 

[46.] When we sailed from 
Santa Cruz, we could see the tops 
of the mountains in the Island of 
St Thomas; but we could not 
see the foot of tJie mountains and 
the shore until we came very 
near. When we reached Amer¬ 
ica, we saw the tops of the hills, 
and of the lighthouse, before we 



(10) Ships at Sea. 


could see the land on which they stood. It was just as if there 
were a liill between us and the lightliouse. 

[47.] This is because the lower paits are hidden by the bending 
or curve of the Earth, as in figure 11, p. xviii. 


A person on the topmast of the ship represented on the left hand of 
figure 11, would only see the top of the lighthouse. A person on board 
the sloop, which is nearer, would see the top of the lighthouse from the 
hull; but he must go nearer still, before he could see the foot of it. A 
person on the lighthouse could see only the higfhest parts of the ship and 
the mountains. 


[48.] Travellers find the same appearance in every part of the 


S, £■ 45. When a ship comes towards an i.sland, what can be seen first ? 
What next ? What is this like ? 46. In sailing from Santa Cruz, what could be 
seen first on St. Thomas ? Could we see the foot of the mountains at the same 
time ? What could we see when we reached America ? What w'as this like ? 
47. Why is this ^ 48. Is this the case in every part of the Earth ? 














































XVlll 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 


Earth. This shows that the Earth bends or curves every where, 
and that it must be round, like a globe, or ball. 



(11) Objects on the Earth. 

[49.] If the earth were flat, as it seems to us, we should see the 
whole of a lightliouse, or a mountain, as soon as we are near 
enough to see any part of it; as in figure 12. 



(12) Objects on a fiat Surface. 


[50.] But we also know that the earth is round, because many 
travellers have sailed a long time nearly in one direction, and have 
come at last to the same place again, witliout turning back ; just 
as a fly does in crawling round an apple. 

ATTRACTION OF GRAVITATION. 

[51.] Those who sail round the earth, find mountains, and trees, 
and buildings, and men, standing upright on all sides of it 

[52.] When tliey come to the opposite side of tlie eartli, they 
find that they stand there, with tlieir feet opposite to ours, as finnly 
as at home. The sun and the stare are still over their heads; and 
every thing they drop falls towards tlie earth, as it does here. 

[^.] This shows us that, as a magnet attracts pieces of iron, 
the earth draws or attracts every thing to itself, and keeps it there, 

What does this show ? What would a person on the topmast of the ship 
see? What on the sloop? What on the lighthouse ? 49. What should we see 
if the earth were flat ? 50. How else do we know the earth to be round ? What is 
this like ? A. a. 51. What do those find who sail round the earth ? 52. How 
is it when they come to the opposite side ? Where, then, do the sun and stars ap¬ 
pear ? When they drop any thing, where does it fall ? 53. What does this show t 


















PICTUKE AND MAP OF THE EARTH. 


XIX 


as in figure 13. The drawing or attraction of the earth is called 
the attraction of gravitation. TJiis attraction is caused and con¬ 



tinued by the Creator, who thus holds the earth, and eveiy thing 
upon it, in its proper place. 

PICTURE AND MAP OF THE EARTH. 

[54.] If we look at a globe, or ball, we can see only one half of 
it at once. Half a globe is called a hemisphere. 

[55.] Here is a small pic¬ 
ture of one half of the 
Earth. The darkest parts 
represent land, and the 
lightest, water. 

[56.] On the left iiand, at 
the edge of the picture, is a 
part of North America; and 
the land below it is South 
America. The light is rep¬ 
resented as if the sun or 
moon were just rising on 
the eastern part of South 

America. ( 14 ) picture of half the Earth. 



What is this attraction called? How is it caused? P, M, IS. 54. How 
much of a globe can we see at once ? What is a half globe called ? Hemisphere 
is from two Greek words, heini, hjilf, and sphairion, a sphere or globe. 65. What is 
the next picture ? How are laud and water represented ? 56. What land is that 
on the left hand ? How is the light represented ? 






























































































XX 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 



[57.] In the middle of the picture, East of America, is the At¬ 
lantic Ocean. This separates America from the land on the right 
hand, which is a part of the Eastern Continent. The picture 
shows one hemisphere, as it would appear to a person at a great 
Jieight above the Atlantic Ocean. 

[58.] Here is a map of the same hemisphere, which shows us 
exactly where each part is, and not 
where it seems to be. You will see a 
number of lines draAvn across it, but they 
are only vnaginanj lines, from which 
the places were measured and marked. 

These lines represent circles which 
pass round the Earth; but on a hemi¬ 
sphere, we can see only one half of each 
circle. 

[59.] The lines or circles from the top 

to the bottom of tlie map, or from North __ 

to Soutli, represent a few meridians, or (] 5 ) of a Hemisphere. 
noon lines. Every place has its own 
meridian ; but they cannot all be marked on a map. 

[60.] When 1 once sailed from New York on a voyage to Lon¬ 
don, our watches were right by the sun at noon, in New York. 
But after sailing eastward a few hundred miles, we found that it 
was noon in the place where we were, sooner than it was by our 
watches. When we reached London, we found that noon was 
five and a half hours earlier there than at New York. 

[61.] This is because the sun rises to places that are East of us 
earlier than it does to us ; and must also pass over the noon line of 
those places sooner than it comes over ours. [See Jig. 14.) 

[62.] Longitude is distance East or West from a meridian ; and 
we can always tell what it is, by seeing how much the time of 
noon changes from one place to another. 

[63.] The line E in the middle of the map, running East and 
West across tlie meridians, represents the equator. It is so called 
because it divides tlie Earth into two equal parts. 

[64.] The shorter lines T T represent the two tropics; and the 
lines P P the polar circles, and we see one half of each of tliese 
circles. The tropic and polar circle nearest tlie north pole, are 
called the northern; and tJie opposite, the southern. 

[65.] The spaces between these circles are like belts, passing 


57 . Where is the Atlantic Ocean ? Where is the Eastern Continent ? How 
much of the Earth does this picture show ? 53. What is this map ^ What does 
it show i Wliat lines are on this map 1 What do these lines representHow 
much of each circle can we see on a hemisphere ? 59. Which are the meridians ? 
60. In sailing east from New York, how is the time of noon ? How much earlier 
is noon at London than at New York } Gl. Can you explain why this is ? Why 
is it noon sooner than with us 62. What is longitude } How can we tell what 
it is ? 63. Which of the lines on the map is the equator ? Why is it so called ? 
64. Which jure the tropics i Which arc the polar circles ? 













/ 


CLIMATES AND ZONES. XXi 


round the Eartli, and are called zones, from t!ie Latin word zona, 
a belt 

CLIMATES AND ZONES. 


[66.] In the picture of ray room in Santa Cruz, (p. ix.) you see 
there are no glass windows, but only shutters; and there are none 
in the house. The houses here seldom have glass windows ; and 
they have no chimneys, as you see in the picture of Fredericksted, 
(p. X.) except in the little kitchens in the yards. 

[67.] The climate, or weather, is so warm that they do not need 
windows or fires. They have no ice or snow. The winter is as 
warm as our summer generally is. In the montli of January, or 
midwinter, in Santa Cruz, I was sitting with every door and win¬ 
dow open, while you wore shivering with cold. I wiU try to ex¬ 
plain to you why tliis is. 

[68.] You know that the sun is always hottest when it is high¬ 
est, as at noon; and gives the least heat when it is lowest, as at 
sunrise and sunset. You can see that it is always higher at noon 
in summer than in winter, as in the next figure, and this makes the 


The little cipher ( ° ) 





Washington. 


summer warm. 

[69.] This figure represents the Earth 
at the top shows 
where Washington, 
tlie capital of the 
United States, lies; 
and the cipher on 
the left hand (St 
C.) shows where 
Santa Cruz lies. 

The sun is repre¬ 
sented in one place 
high, as it appears in 
June, or in our sum¬ 
mer, when it is over 
the northern tropic 
(T); and in another Horizon. 
place ►low, as it ap- 
])ears in December, 
or in our winter, 
when it is vertical to 

the southern tropic. cf . , e 

(IG) Tne Sun at different ^easoTis. 


S. Pol 



/r. Pole. 


65. What are the spaces between these circles called ? C« Z. 66. Do you see 
any glass windows in the picture of my room ? What can you say of the houses 
in Santa Cruz ? 67. Why do they not need windows and chimneys ? How is the 
winter there ? 68. When is the sun hottest ? When does it give the least heat ? 
In what part of the year is it highest at noon ? What effect does this have ? 
69. What does the next figure represent ? What does the little cipher at the top 
show ? How is the sun represented in June ? How in December ? 






XXil 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 


[70.] When we sailed from Boston, in December, tlie sun was 
quite low at noon, and gave very little heat The trees had lost 
tJieir leaves; the grass was withered ; and tlie ground was covered 
with snow. 

[71.] As we sailed South, tlie sun was every day higher and 
warmer at noon, and soon Ave could not bear a fire in our cabin. 

[72.] In a Aveek Ave came to a part of the sea crossed by tlie 
northern tropic, Avhich is one of the imaginary lines marked on the 
map of the hemisphere, (page xx.) The heat of the sun Avas 
scorching, because tlie sun Avas much higher than it is in the United 
States. The captain told us that he had found the sun vertical, or 
directly overhead, tAvice every year, to places on tliis line, all round 
the globe, and to all places betAveen tliis and the southern tropic. 

[73.] When Ave reached land betAveen tlie tropics, the trees 
Avere covered Avith leaves, and floAvers, and fruits; the grass and 
sugar-cane Avere green and beautiful; and the breezes Avere like 
those of our summer. 

[74.] Some of our felloAv-travellers Avho Avent fartlier Soutli in 
mioAvinter, found the same scorcliing sun, and summer weatlier, 
till they came to the tropic on the other side of the equator. The 
sun was eveiy Avhere higher than it is in the United States in 
summer. 

[75.] If you look at figure 16, you will see that the sun must 
sometimes be vertical to every place betAveen the tropfcs, as it 
appears to change its place at noon, from June to December, and 
that it can never be vertical to any other places. For this reason, 
the climate is hot in countries betAveen the two tropics. 

[76.] The zone or belt Avhich passes 
round the Earth betAveen the tropics is 
therefore called the scorching or Torrid 
Zone. One half of this zone is repre¬ 
sented in figure 17. 

[77.] JNorth and South of the tropics 
the sun is never vertical, and never so 
high as in the Torrid Zone. The Aveath- 
er, therefore, is not so hot, and the zones 
between the tropics and polar circles are 
called the Temperate Zones. 





70. How is the sun at Boston in December ? How do the trees, and grass, and 
ground, then usually appear? 71. How does the sun seem in sailing South? 
72. What imaginary line is crossed ? How was the heat of the sun ? Is the sun 
ever vertical there ? 73. What was found on reaching land between the tropics ? 

74. What can you say of places still farther South ? How was the sun there ? 

75. To what places is the sun vertical ? Is it vertical to any other places ? What 
effect has this on the climate between the tropics ? 76. Which is the Torrid 
Zone ? 77. How is the sun in the zones North and South of the tropics ? How 
is the climate there ? What are they called ? 78. How are the sun and weather 
Avithin the polar circles ? What are these zones called ? 
















POPULATION AND GOVERNMENT. 


xxiii 


In Santa Cruz, in the winter, the sun appeared South, and below the 
zenith at noon, and cast the shadows tow'ards the North, as it does in the 
United States, though it was much higher at noon. But towards spring, it 
was higher in Santa Cruz than it ever is in the United States j and in May 
it became vertical at noon, and my shadow fell between my feet. 

On the 20th of June it became vertical to places on the northern tropic; 
and as Santa Cruz lies South of this tropic, the sun at noon svas in the part 
of the sky North of the island. It then shone into my north window, and 
cast the shadows towards the South ; so that a little boy from the United 
States could not tell North from South by the sun. 

In coming to the United States soon after, we found the sun constantly 
North of us at noon, and it seemed as if we were going South, until we 
crossed that part of the sea where it was then vertical, and where our 
shadows at noon again fell between our feet. But after sailing some dis¬ 
tance farther North, the sun was South of us at noon, and our shadows fell 
to the North, as they do in the United States. 

[78.] In the zones witliin the polar circles and around the poles, 
tlie sun is always low, as it is in the United States in tlie morning, 
and gives less heat than in other parts of the Earth. Hence these 
zones have ice and snow for the greater part of the year, and are 
called the cold or Frigid Zones, 

Travellers who have visited the Frigid Zones, have found that even in 
summer, the sun moves round from East to West in a circle only a short 
distance above the horizon ; and in winter it is hidden below the horizon, 
for weeks. In some parts of the Frigid Zones, summer is one long day, 
and winter one long night. 


POPULATION AND GOVERNMENT. 

[79.] Fredericksted contains about 300 houses, and about 1800 
persons inhabit them; so tliat tlie town contains 1800 inhabitants, 
or people. This is called its population. 

[80.] It is only a small town. The city of New York contains 
as many people as 160 towns like Fredericksted; and the population 
of London is 1,800,000, or equal to 1000 such towns. 

[81.] A few of tlie people are white ; and tliey or their fathers 
came from Europe or North America. But the greater part of the 
people in the town and on this island are colored; and they or 
their fathers were brought from Africa as slaves. 

[82.] On the plan of the town, (p. xi.) you see at one end a white 
square. This shows the place of tlie fort, in which there are sol¬ 
diers and cannon, to defend the town if enemies attack it, and to 
compel any -who are disobedient, to obey the laws. 

[83.] The laws of a country command the people to be orderly, 
peaceful, and just to each other, and direct those who disobey to 
be punished. This is ivhat is called government. 

[84.] The laws of tliis island are made by the king of a country 
in Europe called Denmark. Santa Cruz is a colony of Denmark, 
or a place settled by the people of that country, who are called 
Danes. 3 


XXIV 


PREPARATORY LESSONS. 


I 


[85.] It is governed by a Danish governor, in place of the 
king. As a king is also called a monarch, the government is 
called monarchical. 

[86.] In our country, the people choose their president, gov¬ 
ernors, and representatives, who make our laws; and our govern¬ 
ment is called republican. 


PRODUCTIONS AND MANUFACTURES. 

[87.] The trees represented on the picture of Fredericksted are 
cocoa-nut trees. The hills are covered with fields of sugar-cane, 
which look very much like fields of Indian corn; as you will see 
on the picture of a plantation, in tlie account of the West Indies, 
which you will find in another part of the book. 

[88.] You will find coffee, and oranges, and limes, and pine¬ 
apples growing here, which do not grow in cold climates. These 
are called products, or productions, of the island. 

[81).] The most important production is sugar-cane. This is 
produced by cultivating the ground, Avhich is called agriculture ; 
and the Africans are employed in agriculture, under the order of 
masters and overseers. 

[90.] The juice of tire sugar-cane is made into sugar and mo¬ 
lasses, by boiling in a sugar-house, such as you see witJi a chimney, 
on the picture of a plantation. 

[91.] This is called a manufacture, and it is tlie principal 
manufacture on this island; for they do not manufacture such 
articles as cloths, eartlien-v/are, tools, and other things of iron, 
tin, and copper, as the people do in Europe and the United 
States. 

[92.] They make much more sugar and molasses here than tliey 
can use, and therefore they export, or send away, these articles, as 
well as oranges, cocoa-nuts, and other products of the island, in 
ships to otlier countries. Sugar and molasses are the chiei' exports 
of the island. 

Export is from the Latin ex.oid cf and porto,/.o carry. Import 

is from the Latin words in, into, and porto, to bring. 

[93.] In exchange for their sugar, they import, or bring in, from 
the United States and other countries, the flour of wheat and rye, 
and other productions of temperate climates; meal from Indian 
corn, which they do not cultivate; and cloths, earthen-ware, tools, 
and other articles not manufactured here. 

[94.] You will find that different countries have different ex¬ 
ports and imports; because they have different productions and 
manufactures, which they exchange v.dth each other. This ex¬ 
change is called imrfe, or commerce. 


GEOGRAPHY 


1. Geography* is a description of the Earth. We should 
begin to study Geography by observing those parts of the 
Earth which are around us; and then we shall better under¬ 
stand the description of other parts. 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.! 

THE HORIZON. 

2. We can see only a small part of the Earth at once, 
which appears, at first sight, to end in a circle all around 
us. This circle, in which the earth and sky seem to meet, 
is called the horizon. 

3. But if toe go to the most distant place toe can see on the 
edge of the horizon, we shall learn that it is only an imagi¬ 
nary circle, because we shall see other places and things be¬ 
yond it, and a new circle around us. We shall thus find 
that it is only the boundary of our sight; and that every place 
has its own horizon, of which it is the centre.! See p. xiv. 

4. The point immediately over our heads is called the 
zenith. Every place has its own zenith, directly over the 
centre of its own horizon. 


1. What is Geography 1 How siiould we begin to study it2. How does the 
Earth appear at first sight 'i What is the horizon ? 3. Is it a real or an imaginary 
circle ? How do we know this } Is the horizon every where the same 4. What 
is the zenith ^ Has every place the same zenith ? 


* The principal subject of each paragraph is pointed out by the words in capital 
or Italic letters, from which questions njay be formed j as, What is Geography ? 
How does tke earth appear at first sight 1 

t Mathematical Geography treats chiefly of the form and mathematical divisions 
of the earth. Physical Geography describes the works of the Creator, as land and 
water, rivers, mountains, climates, and productions. Political Geography de¬ 
scribes man and his works, and may be divided into Civil Geography, or the 
account of men, with their occupations and customs ; and Statistical Geography, 
or the description of states, with their boundaries, towns, people and resources. 





26 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


5. When the sun or a star is in the zenith, it is said to be 
vertical. The sun is never vertical to us in the United 
States ; but it is nearest to the zenith at noon. 

That point of the heavens which is directly opposite to the zenith, and 
seems to be under our feet, is called the nadir. 

POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 

6. That part of the horizon in which the sun rises is 
called the East, and that in which it sets is called the West. 

7. That part of the horizon over which the sun appears to 
us at noon is called the South, and that part towards which 
the shadows fall is called the North. 

The sun never rises exactly in the East, nor sets exactly in the West, ex¬ 
cept at the equinoxes, on the 20th of March and the 20th of September. 
In the summer, it rises a little North of East, and sets a little North of 
West. In the winter, it rises a little South of East, and sets a little South 
of West. 

8. There is one star in the heavens, opposite to the place 
of the sun at noon, which never seems to move, while the 
neighboring stars all appear to move round it. It is called 
the North Star, because it shows us at night which way is 
North ; and also the Pole Star, because it is almost over 
the North Pole. 

On looking towards the North in a clear night, we shall see 7 bright stars, 
which belong to the constellation 
called the Great Bear, arranged in 
a form like that of a dipper, or a 
plough; as at G. B., figure 18. 

Two of these (a and b) are called 
the pointers, because they point to 
a tynall, faint star, — one of seven 
others arranged in a similar form,— 
which is the last in the tail of the 
Little Bear, L. B. This is the Pole 
Star, marked P. These, with other 
neighboring stars, appear to move 
round the Pole Star in regular order, 
every 24 hours; and in this way, 
they are sometimes above it, sometimes below it, and sometimes they are 
on one side of it, as in the figure. 

5. When is the sun verticalIs the sun ever vertical in the United States ? 
When is it nearest the zenith.^ C« 6. What is East.^ What is West.^ 
7. Which way is South ? Which way is North ? 8. What star is there which 
does not appear to niove.^ What point does it show us ? What is it called } 


P 


« 6 


A 

L B 








G. B. 


(18) The Pole Star, 




POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 


27 


9. These four points, North, East, South, and West, 
( (marked N., E., S., W.,) are called the cardinal points 

; When we stand with our right hand to the East, West will 
I be on our left hand. North before us, and South behind us. 

10. Between these poxnis <irQ four other principal points 
— North-East, South-East, North-West, and South-West, 

I marked N-E., S-E., N-W., S-W. 



11 . The magnetic needle of a compass always points 

North and South, and therefore it shows us these points 
when we cannot see the sun or the stars. The compass is 
used by seamen in finding their way across the ocean; and 
they divide it into thirty-two points, as marked in figure 19. 
Hence all these are called of the compass. 

The points on the right hand of North are read thus ; North ; North by 
East; North-North-East; North-East by North; North-East; North-East 
by East; East-North-East; East by North, and East. To repeat the 32 
points is called “ boxing the compass,’’^ and is often puzzling to beginners. 

12. The course or direction of a place is that point of the 
compass towards which it lies, from us, or from some other 
place mentioned. It is also called its hearing. 

9. What are the cardinal points.^ 10. What other principal points between 
these? 11. How can we find North and South, when we cannot see the sun or 
the stars ? 12. What is the course or direction of one place from another f 







28 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


13. The course of a river is named from that point of 
the compass towards which it runs. But, on the contrary, 
the direction of the wind has the name of that point from 
which it comes. Thus a wind blowing from N. to S. is 
called a N. wind; but the course of a river flowing from 
N. to S. is said to be S. 

QUESTIONS. 

Can you tell on which side of the school-house the sun rises 7 Point 
with your finger to that side where the shadows fall at noon. Now point 
to the East — to the West—to the North — to the South. 

On which side of the school-house does the road or street pass 7 On 
which side does the teacher sit 7 In which direction is your face turned, 
when you sit down at your seat 7 What point is on your right hand^? 
What on your left 7 What point is behind you 7 What objects can you 
see from the school-house towards each point of the compass 7 What is 
the course to your own house 7 Is there a river or stream near you, and 
which way does it run 7 Can you tell which way the wind is to-day 7 

FORM OF THE EARTH. 

14. In travelling over the Earth, we always see the top of 
a mountain first; and when we discover a ship on the ocean, 
we always see the top-sails, before we can see the hull or 
body of the ship, as in the engraving, page xvii. 

In a clear day, we can see the hull of a ship, or the body of a church, on 
level ground at the distance of 3 or 4 miles. But if the highest point is 50 
feet high, we can see that at the distance of 9 miles ; and the top of a light¬ 
house or monument, 200 feet high, may be seen at the distance of 18 miles. 
In the same way, if we go up 50 feet on a hill, we can see the hull of a 
ship 9 miles ; and at the height of 200 feet, we can see it, with a telescope, 
at the distance of 18 miles. A mountain 5000 feet high may be seen at the 
distance of 93 miles ; and the top of the Peak of TenerifFe, which is 12,000 
feet high, has been seen at the distance of 135 miles. In some states of 
the air, things are seen that are more distant, and are said by sailors to 
‘Moom up.” This is caused by the refraction, or turning of the light; and 
images of ships have been seen, in this way, long before they came within 
the horizon. 

15. This is because the lower parts of the mountain or 
the ship are hidden by the bending or curve of the Earth, 

13. How is the course of a river named? How is the direction of the wind 
named? p, E, 14. In travelling over the Earth, what part of a mountain, or 
of a ship, do we see first ? 15. Why do we see the highest part of an object first ? 



FORM OF THE EARTH. 


29 


just as the lower part of a house or a carriage is hidden by 
the curve of a hill. This appearance is the same in all 
parts of the world ; and it shotvs us that the Earth is a 
globe, or ball. 

16. Magellan, and many other travellers, have sailed 
round the earth, and find that it is about 25,000 miles in 
circumference, or about 8,000 miles in diameter. 





(20) The Earth flattened 
at the Poles. 


Circumference is distance round. Diameter is distance through the 
centre. The circumference ofa circle, or globe, 
is about three times the diameter. The Earth 
is not exactly a globe, but is flattened at the 
poles j so that the diameter is greatest from 
East to West, as represented imperfectly in fig¬ 
ure 20. The average diameter is 7912 miles. 

17. Travellers find the sun and 
stars over their heads, on all sides of 
the Earth. We see, then, that the 
Earth floats among the stars, like a 
bubble in the air ; and it can only be 
kept in its place by the care of the Creator. 

18. On every part of the Earth there are men and ani¬ 
mals, trees and buildings, as in the engraving, page xix. 
They are kept there by the attraction of gravitation by 
which every thing is drawn towards the centre of the Earth, 
as iron is drawn towards a magnet. The Creator thus 
holds all parts of the Earth together, and keeps every thing 
upon it in its proper place. 

19. Those who are on the opposite side of the Earth 
stand with their feet opposite to ours, and are called our 
antipodes, (an-tip-o-dees.) But their heads are upwards, to¬ 
wards the starry heavens, as well as ours; and they call us 
their antipodes. 

Antipodes is from the Greek words anti, against, and podes, feet. 

20. Hence we see, that the centre of the Earth, which is 
between us and our antipodes, is really the lowest point of 


What is it like ? Is this appearance the same in all parts of the Earth } What 
does it show .? 16. What is the circumference of the Earth } How do we know 
this.? What is the diameter.? What is circumference.? What is diameter.? 
17. How do the sun and stars appear to travellers on different sides of the Earth.? 
Who keeps the Earth floating among the stars.? 18. What do we find on every 
part of the globe.? How are they kept there.? What effect has this.? Who causes 
the attraction of gravitation, and why.? 19. Who are oui antipodes.? 20. What 
is, then, the lowest point of tlie Earth.? 



30 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


the ILarth. Wherever we are, downicards means — towards 
the centre of the Earth ; and upwards means. — towards the 
starry heavens. 


RPoU 


AXIS AND POLES OF THE EARTH. 

21. Astronomers have discovered that the Earth turns 
round, like a wheel on its axle, 
cnce every 24 hours, from West 
to East. This causes the sun to 
appear to move round over us 
from East to West; just as, when 
we travel very fast in one direc¬ 
tion, the houses and trees appear 
to move as fast in the opposite 
direction. 

22. The daily motion of the 
Earth round its axis gives us day 
and night in regular succession; because it brings us half 
the time into the light of the sun, and half the time into the 
shade. 

23. The diameter, or line through the Earth, on which 
it seems to turn, is called the axis of the Earth, and the 
ends of the axis are called the pole.<i, as in figure 21. The 
pole nearest to the United States, is the North Pole; and 
the opposite end of the axis is the South Pole. 



SPotc 


(21) Axis and Poles. 


MERIDIANS AND LONGITUDES. 

24. In order to describe the situation of places on the 
Earth, we must use certain imaginary lines, from which we 
can measure the distance of places, and mark them cor¬ 
rectly on maps. 

25. A line drawn along the edge of the shadow of a 
house, or of a perpendicular post, at noon, runs exactly 
North and South. Such a line is called a noon Ime, or 
meridian, because the sun will always be over this line at 
noon. {Seep, xv.) 

What does downwards mean ? Wliat docs upwards mean ? A. P. 21. How 
does the Earth turn round? What motion of the sun does it seem to cause? 
22. What causes day and night? Why? 23. What is the axis of the Earth? 
What are the poles? Which is the North and which the South pole? 
IVE. Ii. 24. What lines must we use in describing the situation of places on 
the Earth? 25. What is a noon line, or meridian ? 



EQUATOR, LATITUDE, AND PARALLELS^ 31 

2G. As the Earth turns round towards the East, the sun 
IS over our noon line after it is noon at places East of us, 
and before it is noon at places West of us. Every place,' 
therefore, must have its own noon line or meridian. 

27. All the meridians meet in the poles, as on the hem¬ 
isphere, figure 22, forming half circles ; 
and when they are drawn round the 
Earth, they form entire circles, which 
are also called meridians. 

28. Longitude is distance East or 
West from a meridian. It was called 
longitude by the ancients, because they 
supposed the Earth to be longest from 
East to West. 

29. All places lying on the same 
meridian, or exactly North ^nd South 
of each other, have the same longitude, and have noon at 
the same moment. 

SO. Longitude is measured from some one meridian, 
which is taken as the first meridian. On American and 
British maps, it is generally measured from the meridian 
of Greenwich, near London ; and sometimes, on American 
maps, from the meridian of Washington. 

EaUATOR, LATITUDE, AND PARALLELS. 

»3I. The equator is an imaginary line drawn round the Earth 
from East to West, half way between 
the two poles. The line in the middle 
of figure 23 represents one half of it. 

It is called the equator, because it 
divides the Earth into two equal parts, 
or half globes, called hemispheres. 

The northern hemisphere is that on 
which we live in the United States; 
and the southern hemisphere is the op¬ 
posite half of the earth. ( 23 ) 

23. Is the sun over our noon line at the same time that it is noon at places East 
and West ofus.^ 27. Where do the meridians meet.^ What circles do they 
form.? 28. What is longitude ? Why was it so called .? 29. What is said of places 
lying on the same meridian.? 30. IIow is longitude measured ? How on Ameri¬ 
can and British maps.? 2j. P. 3L What is the equator.? Why is it so 
called.? Which hemisphere do we live in.’ Where is the southern hemisphere ? 

, 2* 














32 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


32. Distance North or South from the equator is called 
latitude. It is measured on a meridian, from the equator 
each way towards the poles, and is called North latitude or 
South latitude according to its direction. 

As tlie ancients supposed the Earth to be longest from East to West, the 
breadth was reckoned from North to South ; and they called distance North 
or South latitude, from the Latin word latitudo, breadth. 


33. Nortli and South of the equator, small circles are 
drawn parallel to it, and are called parallels of latitude, 
because each parallel marks the latitude of all places 
through which it passes. The lines across the hemisphere, 
figure 23, represent the halves of several parallels. 

34. Paralltl lines are those which are in every part 

equally distant from each' other. They may be parallel 
straight lines ( = ), or parallel curved lines ( ). 

35. Two of the parallels of latitude 
are called tropics, one of which is on 
each side of the equator. The northern 
is the 'Tropic of Cancer, and the south¬ 
ern the Tropic of Capricorn. 

36. Two other parallels, which are 
near the poles, are called the polar 
circles. The northern is called the 
Arctic, and the southern the Antarctic 
Circle. One half of each of these four 
circles is shown on the hemisphere, 
figure 24. 

The tropics are 23 degrees 28 minutes (or about 
23.^ degrees) distant from the equator j and tlie 
polar circles are at the same distance from the 
poles. 

37. The spaces between these circles 
are like belts passing round the earth, 
and are called Zones; as in figure 25, 
which shows one half of each of these 
zones. Fig. 26 represents more dis- 



'031 C^' 
(25) 


32 \\ hat IS latitudeHow is it measured.? 33. What are parallels of latitude ? 
34. W hat are parallel lines ? 35. What are the tropics ? What is the northern 
tropic called.? What the southern.? 36. What are the polar circles ? What 

called"? ’’^tween these circles 























MEASURES. 


33 


tinctly the shape of the zones in the 
Northern Hemispliere. 

sun gives most heat when 
it is highest; as at noon with us, and 
m countries where it is vertical. It 
gives the least heat when it is low¬ 
est ; as at sunrise and sunset with us, 
and in countries where it is always low. 

39. The sun is sometimes vertical, 
and generally almost vertical, at noon, 
to the belt of the Earth, between the 



(26) Northern Zones. 


two tropics. Hence this is the hottest part of the Earth, 
and is called the scorching, or Torrid Zone. - 

40. In the two zones li/ing between the tropics and polar 
circles, on each side of the Torrid Zone, the sun is never 
vertical. Hence they are not very hot, and are called the 
Temperate Zones. 

41. In those parts of the Earth which lie around the 
poles, and within the polar circles, the sun is always low 
through the day, even in summer. Hence they are cov¬ 
ered with snow and ice for the greater part of the year, and 
are called the cold, or Frigid Zones. 


MEASURES. 

42. The height of mountains is generally measured in 
feet, and the depth of the sea in feet, or in fathoms of 6 feet 
each. Both arc measured from the level of the sea. 

43. Distances on the surface of the Earth are generally I 

measured, by the English and Americans, in rods, or in I 
English miles. 9 

A rod is 16^ feet. An English mile is 320 rods, or 5280 feet. A foot 9 
is 12 inches, and an inch is equal in length to tiie black line on the mar- I 
gin, or to the breadth of 7^ of the lines in large type. Most of the people 9 
we see are from 5 to 6 feet in height j and it would require 9 men to ■ 
stand one on the head of another, to reach the top of a house 50 feet high. Rj 

38. When does the sun give most heatWhen the least? 39. In what part of 
the Earth is the sun vertical ? What climate does this cause ? What is this Zone 
called ? 40. Is the sun vertical in the Zones on each side of the Torrid Zone ? 
What are these Zones called? 41. What is the position of the sun within the 
polar circles ? What are these Zones called ? 42. What measure is used 

for the height of mountains ? What for the depth of the sea ? From what point 
are both measured ? 43. What measure is used for distances on the surface of 
the Earth ? 









34 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


44. The length of a mile varies in different countries, so 
that a German mile is equal to more than four tiiiglish 
miles. On this account, geographers of all nations have 
agreed to measure the latitude and longitude of places, on 
the Earth and on the maps, in degrees. 

45. They divide every circle into 360 degrees; so that 
every half circle contains 180 degrees, and every quarter of 
a circle 90 degrees. In this way, a degree is alioays the 
three hundred and sixtieth part of a circle, whether the 
circle be great or small. 

46. Degrees are marked by a small cipher ( ° ) above 
the number, thus, 90°. Every degree is divided into 60 
minutes, marked with one stroke above ('); and every 
minute into 60 seconds, marked with two strokes ("). 

The minutes of a great circle are also called geographical miles. They 
are chiefly used by mariners, who call them nautical miles, or knots. 

47. Latitude is measured North or South from the 
equator to one of the poles, or one quarter of a circle ; and 
therefore can never be more than 90°. On the equator, it 
is 0° ; at the poles, it is 90°. 

48. Longitude is measured 180 degrees East or West 
from the first meridian, half round the globe, to the opposite 
meridian ; and in our mode of reckoning longitude, it is 
never more than 180°. 

49. A great circle is one whose centre is at the centre of 
the Earth, and whose circumference is equal to the greatest 
circumference of the Earth; as the equator and the me¬ 
ridians. 

50. A small circle is one whose centre is not at the cen¬ 
tre of the Earth, and whose circumference is less than that 
of the Earth; as the parallels of latitude. 

51. ^ degree of a great circle is found to be about 69 

44. Is a mile of the same length in all countries? What measure do geogra¬ 
phers use ? 45. How do they divide every circle? How many degrees in a half 
circle? How many in a quarter of a circle? What part of a circle, then, is a 
degree? 48. How are degrees marked? How divided? How are minutes 
marked ? How divided ? How are seconds marked ? 47. How many degrees 
from the equator is latitude measured ? W'hat is it at the equator? What at the 
poles? 48. How many degrees is longitude measured ? What is the highest de¬ 
gree of longitude in our mode of reckoning? 49. What is a great circle? Men¬ 
tion some of the great circles. 50. What is a small circle ? What small cir¬ 
cles do we draw on maps ? 51. How long is a degree of a great circle ? 



MEASLiRES. 


35 


English miles. Hence the degrees of latitude which are 
measured on a meridian, are generally about this length. 

In consequence of the Earth being flattened at the poles, they vary a little. 
A degree of latitude at the equator is 68-1 miles. In the latitude of England, 
it is 69^, and in Lapland 69^? according to the latest measurements. 

52. Longitude is measured on the equator or on a par¬ 
allel of latitude. In places on the equator, (which is a 
great circle,) a degree of longitude is also about 69 miles ; 
but in going North or South from the equator, it becotnes 
less as the parallels become smaller. {See Jig. 22, p. 31.) 

A degree of longitude on the equator is 69^ English miles ; in latitude 
4-2°, it is only 52 miles ; and in latitude 70°, only 23 miles. 

53. Longitude is sometimes reckoned in hours. As the 
Earth turns on its axis 360 degrees in 24 hours, it must 
turn 15 degrees in one hour. Hence a place 15 degrees 
East of us, will have noon an hour before it is noon with us, 
and a place 15 degrees West of us, an hour after us. 

Mariners find the longitude by means of a correct watch, which keeps 
the time of noon at the place they left, and shows how long the sun is in 
going from its noon line to that on which they are. They multiply the hours 
by 15°, and thus measure in the heavens the distance they go on the earth. 

54. The extent of countries is generally measured in 
square miles — that is, by the number of squares measuring 
one mile on each side, which will cover it. A square mile 
contains 640 acres. 


A square piece of ground 
of 640 acres, or one mile 
in length on each side, 
will make one square mile, ^ 
as at A, figure 27. A lot 
of ground, two miles long 
and one mile broad, will 
make a parallelogram, or 
oblong square, containing 
two square miles, as at B. If two miles long and two miles broad, or two 
miles square, it will contain 4 square miles, as at C. 

If the shape of a country is nearly a Square; or a parallelogram, {oblong,) we 
can find the square miles by multiplying the length by the breadth. If it 
is triangular, or has three sides and angles, {comers,) like the half of a square 



What, then, is the lensth of the degrees of latitude? 52. On what circles is 
longitude measured ? What is the length of a degree of longitude at the equator ? 
Is the length of a degree the same in different latitudes? 53. Is longitude ever 
reckoned in any other way? 54. How is the extent of countries generally 
meamired ? How many acres in a square mile? 











36 


MATHEMATIC Mi GEOGRAPHY. 


formed by drawing a diagonal across it, as at D, multiply the length by half 
the breadth. 

Do you know any place which is about a mile from you ? Do you know 
how long and broad the town is in which you live ? If you do, how many 
square miles does it contain ? Do you know any field or garden which 
contains an acre ? How many such would make a square mile ? 

REPRESENTATIONS OF THE EARTH’S 
SURFACE. 

GLOBES, MAPS, AND CHARTS. 

55. The EarWs surface may be represented on an arti¬ 
ficial globe, or on maps or charts. 

56. An artificial globe is a smooth ball, on which the 
outlines of sea and land, of rivers and 
mountains, are drawn just as they are 
on the Earth ; and this gives the most 
correct representation of the lines on 
the Earth’s surface. Figure 28 shows 
how a globe is hung, so as to turn in 
a frame. 

57. But on a globe there is only 
room to show a few of the rivers, and 
mountains, and towns ; and therefore 
we are obliged to represent small 
parts of the Earth on maps and charts. 

58. A map is the representation 
of the Earth’s surface as it would ap¬ 
pear to a person at a great distance above it, as in the 
moon ; and is made by measurement. 

It is as if half a globs of iron were hammered down flat, with the same 
lines upon it, and without making the circle any larger; and so we see that 
it cannot be so correct a representation of the Earth, as a globe. In this 
way, the circles and countries near the middle are more pressed together 
than at the edges, and the parallels of latitude do not appear parallel, as in 
figure 29, page 37. 

59. If we could look down upon the Earth from the 
moon, ice could see only one half the globe at once; and, 

R. E. S. 55. How may the Earth’s surface be represented ? 56. What is 
an artificial globe .? 57. Can we represent most of the rivers and mountains on a 
globe ? What, then, must we do i 58. What is a map i 59. How much of the 
globe could be seen at once from the moon ? 



(28) Artificial Globe. 





GLOBES, MAPS, AND CHARTS. 


37 



of course, we can represent only half the globe on one map. 
We must, therefore, draw separate maps of each hemisphere, 
in order to make a complete map of the world. 

00. The outlines of the Western Hemisphere, which con¬ 
tains America, are represented above, as they would appear to 
a person over the equator, on our side of the Earth. On 
the back of it, on the next page, the Eastern Hemisphere is 
represented, as it would appear to a person directly over it. 

61. These maps show how the countries are situated on 
each side of the Earth; but the hemispheres are commonly 
placed side by side, that they may be more easily compared, 
and form a map of the world like that in the atlas. 

82. But as we are obliged to make our maps by measure¬ 
ment, we must first draw the imaginary lines which have 


How much, then, can be represented on a map? How can we make a com¬ 
plete map of the world ? 60. How do you find the Western Hemisphere repre¬ 
sented here? How is the Eastern represented? 61. What do they form when 
placed side by side ? 62. What must we first do in making our maps ? 




















3S 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(30) Eastern Hemisphere. 



been described, (pp. 31 and 32,) and then mark every place 
according to its direction and distance from these lines. 

63. Every map, therefore, con- 
tains the meridians and parallels, 
or the imaginary lines for meas¬ 
urement, and the true lines, which 
represent the outlines of land and 
water. 

64. Oti most maps, the upper 
part is North, and the lower part 
South. Of course. East is on the 
right hand, and West on the left, 
as in figure 31. 

65. The meridians are drawn 
from the top to the bottom of the 



How then proceed? 63. What, then, does every map contain? 64. Which 
part of the map is North? Which East? South? West? 6.5. How are the 
meridians drawn ? 














































GLOBES, MAPS, AND CHARTS. 


39 



(32) Northern Hemisphere. 


map, and point out North and South ;• and the equator and 
parallels of latitude are drawn from left to right, and point 
out East and West. But as these lines are generally curved 
on the maps, to represent circles on the Earth, loe must trace 
the points of the compassy on the same curve, in order to 
find the true bearing. 

Thus, in the Western Hemisphere, on a map of the World, the Azores are 
South from Iceland, although they appear to be South-East; and Newfound¬ 
land is South-West, although it appears to be South. The pupil should 
examine the points of compass on the map, as in the following exercises, 
until he is perfectly familiar with them. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAP OK THE WORLD. 

What islands lie S. from Iceland ? What cape S. W. from it ? What 
country is E. from Iceland? (See Eastern Hemisphere.) Which way is 
Iceland from the Cape Verd Islands ? 

[The most southern point of S. America is Cape Horn.'] Mention some 


How the equator and parallels of latitude? How must we find the true bear¬ 
ings of places ? Give some examples. 




















MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


AO 



(33) Southern Hemisphere, 


of the places which lie N‘. from Cape Horn, to the Worth Pole. What 
island lies N. VV. from Cape Horn ? 

66. The various of a coun¬ 
try^ or divisions of the Earth, are 
also named according to the points 
of the compass, as in figure 34, the 
middle being called the interior. 

67. In map 32, on the last 
page, the Northern Hemisphere is 
represented as it would appear 
to a person over the North Pole ; 
and in map 33, on this page, the Southern Hemisphere, as it 
would be seen from a point over the South Pole. These are 
called polar maps. 

68. On a polar map, when the North Pole is in the 
centre, as in figure 32, the direction will of course be N. 

66 . How are the various parts of a country, or divisions of the Earth, named ? 
67. How is the Northern Hemisphere represented.’ The Southern? 68. Which 
are North and South on a polar map ? 


North-west¬ 
ern part. 

Northern 

part. 

North-east¬ 
ern pan. 

Western 

part. 

Interior, or 
Central part. 

Eastern 

part. 

Sooth-west¬ 
ern part. 

Southern 

part. 

South-east¬ 
ern part. 


(34) Parts of a Country. 






































GLOBES, MAPS, AND CHARTS. 


41 


from all sides towards the pole, 
and S. from the pole towards 
the sides of the map, as in figures 
31 and 35. When the South 
Pole is the centre, as in figure 33, 
the direction towards the centre 
will be S.; and from the centre 
will be N. 

69. A chart is a representation 

of the Earth’s surface as if it were 
spread out on a flat surface, or 
plain; and the greater part, or 
the whole of the Earth, may be 
represented on one chart. (35) Polar Map. 

70. Charts are in some parts less exact than maps; be¬ 
cause the countries around the poles are so much spread 
out, that they are too large in proportion to the rest. 





(37) 


Thus figure 36 shows two portions, or gores, containing the outlines of 
America, as they would be made for putting on a globe; and figure 37 
shows the same part of the world, represented as spread out on a flat sur¬ 
face in a chart, with the parts near the pole much enlarged. 


G9. What is a chart ? 70. Which are most exact, charts or maps ? Why ? 

What can you say of figures 36 and S?.-* 
























42 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


71. But the meridians and parallels on charts are all 
straight lines; and therefore charts are more convenient for 
seamen, in finding the direction and distance of places from 
each other. 

72. Latitude is generally marked on the sides of maps 
and charts; but on the maps of the world it is marked on 
the circular edge. Longitude is marked on the equator, 
or at the top and bottom of the map. On a polar map^ 
latitude is marked on the meridian, and longitude on all 
sides of the map. {See 1] 68.) 

On some maps, the parallels of latitude are straight; but on most maps, 
we must follow the curves of the circles, as in finding the bearings. 

If the degrees of latitude on a map or chart increase upwards, or tow-ards 
the North, we know that the latitude is North. If they increase downwards, 
or towards the South, it is Sotith latitude. 

73. A physical map represents only the works of the Cre¬ 
ator, as land and water, rivers and mountains. A political 
map shows also the works of man; as states, boundaries, 
towns, roads, and canals. 

PuTsicAi. is from the Greek word phxisikos, natural. 


PROFILES. 



(38) Profile of the Massachusetts Railway. 

74. A profile is a representation of an object as it appears 
from one side, and is used to show the form and height of 
the land. Thus the profile, figure 38, of the land over 
which the railway passes from Boston to Albany, shows us 
how we ascend and descend in going over it; and the height 
of the different parts above the level of the sea, at Boston, 
may be found by the scale of feet at the side. The numbers 
below show the distances, in miles, from Boston. 

71. Why are charts convenient for seamen.? 72. Where are latitude and longi- 
tude generally marked } How on a polar map ? 73. What does a physical map 
represent ? A political map ? p, 74. What is a profile ? For what is it used > 
Give an oxaniple. 









problp:ms. 


43 


From Boston, the traveller on the railAvay gradually ascends 918 feet, to 
the summit above Worcester; and then descends nearly as much to the 
Connecticut River. He then ascends again from Springfield, about 1400 
feet, over Mt. Washington, to Pittsfield ; and descends again about as much 
to Albany. 

75. A profile is also called a section^ because it shows 
how the land would appear if it were cut through perpen¬ 
dicularly, down to the level of the sea. 

Section is from the Latin word sectio, a cut, or cutting. Thus if a 
canal were cut through, on a level with the sea, from Boston to Albany, the 
profile 38 would represent the appearance of one of its banks. 

76. Profiles, or sections, are sometimes used to represent 
the bed and depth of the sea; as in figure 39. 

The light parts represent the 
water, and the dark parts the solid 
bottom or bed of the sea, which 
has a hill in the middle, and two 
valleys filled with water on each 
side of it. The scale on the left 
shows the depth below the level 
of the sea, in fathoms, each of 
which is equal to six feet. 



(II.)* PROBLEMS ON THE MAPS. 

Prob. 1. To find the latitude of a place. Trace a line from the place 
of which the latitude is required to one side of the map, following the curve 
of the parallels of latitude; the latitude will there be found marked in 
degrees. 

Questions. How do you find latitudes 1 What is the latitude of New¬ 
foundland ? Of Cuba ? Of Cape Horn ? Of Great Britain ? Of the Cape 
of Good Hope 1 

Prob. H. To find the longitude of a place. Look at the top or bottom 
of the map, or on the equator, and find the degree opposite the given place, 
taking care to follow the course of the meridians. 

Questions. What is the longitude of Philadelphia, from London ? What 
is that of Mexico from the same place ? Of the Sandwich Islands ? Of 
China ? 


75. What other name is given to a profile ? Why ? 76. What are profiles or 
sections also used to represent ? 


* This number is prefixed to indicate that the chapters, or portions of chapters, 
as well as the remarks, in small type, are to be left for a second course of study. 

























44 


MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


On a polar map, the latitude will be found marked on a meridian, and the 
longitude on all sides of the map. 

Prob. III. To find a place whose latitude and longitude are given. Find 
the meridian of the given longitude, and then trace a line from the degree 
of latitude on the side of the map. The point where it meets the meridian^ 
will be the position of the place required. 

Questions. What place is in latitude 51^° N. and longitude 0° from Lon¬ 
don 1 What place is in latitude 0° and about 79° W. longitude from Lon¬ 
don ? What place in longitude 77° W. and about in latitude 39° JV. ? What 
in longitude 71° W. and latitude 42° N. ? What in longitude 30° E. and lat¬ 
itude 60° IN. ? What in longitude 118° £. and latitude 39° IN. ? 

Prob. IV. To find the difference of time between any two places. Divide 
the difference of longitude by 15 5 or count the meridians from one place 
to the other, on the Chart of the World, where they are drawn every 15 
degrees 5 and you will have the number of hours’ difference in their time. 

If the place is East of the place given, the time of that place is so many 
hours earlier than that of the place given 5 if West, so many hours later than 
that of the place given. 

Thus the meridian of Greenland is 30°, or two hours, E. of Philadelphia, 
and hence the time there is two hours later, or it is two o’clock in Green¬ 
land when it is noon in Philadelphia. 

Questions. What is the difference of time between Philadelphia and 
Mexico ? What between Philadelphia and the Sandwich Islands ? What 
between Philadelphia and China ? What is the difference of time between 
London and Philadelphia ‘I What between London and China 1 What be¬ 
tween London and Egypt ? 

Prob. V. To find the difference of longitude in travelling, when we know 
the difference of time. Multiply the hours by 15, or divide the minutes by 
4, and you will have the difference of longitude in degrees. If a correct 
watch is later than the true time at the place we reach, we have travelled 
so many degrees W. 3 if earlier, so many degrees E. of the place we left. 
It is in this way, by the aid of a very exact watch, called a chronometer, 
that mariners generally find tlie longitude. 

Questions. If a traveller from Philadelphia finds the time, by his watch, 
two hours later than in the place where he is, what difference of longitude 
has he made ? If a traveller from New York finds his watch 5^ hours too 
slow after going North-East, where will he probably be ? If a traveller 
from London finds it 4^ hours later, where is he ? If it is two hours earlier, 
in what country of Asia will he be ? 


PARTS OF THE EARTH. 


45 


ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL 
GEOGRAPHY. 

PARTS OF THE EARTH. 

77. The Earth consists of three parts, all of which move 
together, as it turns round its axis; 1st, the solid body 
on which we live; 2d, the waters which fill its hollows or 
basins; 3d, the atmosphere or air which surrounds both. 

78. The solid body of the Earth is a globe ; but its sur¬ 
face is very irregular. In some parts, it is hollowed into 
deep basins or valleys, which are filled with icater. In 
other parts it is above the level of the water, and forms 
land, which rises into hills and mountains, with valleys 
between them. 

79. But the greatest height of mountains is not more than 
six miles, or the thirteen hundredth part of the diameter of 
the Earth; and it is not probable that the valleys filled by 
the sea are much deeper. All these irregularities, therefore, 
are no more on the surface of the earth, in proportion to its 
size, than the roughness on the peel of an orange. 

80. The water is collected chiefly in one vast body, called 
the sea, which surrounds the land, and covers two thirds 
of the surface of the earth; but apart of it is scattered in 
smaller basins, in the midst of the land, or flows through it 
in streams. 

81. The atmosphere is the body of air which surrounds 
the earth, containing the vapors and clouds from which we 
receive rain. It must move with us, and form a part of the 
Earth, or we should always feel it striking against us like a 
violent wind, as we do in travelling fast, in a still day. 

82. The Earth teas formed by the Creator to be the 
abode of man during a short life, and the school in which 
he is to prepare for a life that will never end. 

83. The land is made for his habitation — the sea for his reservoir of 
water and highway over the world — and the atmosphere io give him breath, 
and convey light, and warmth, and refreshing showers 5 and they are tilled 
with all that he needs for his subsistence and comfort. 

P, E. 77. Of how many parts does the Earth consist ? 78. What can you 
say of its solid body ? Irreoular meana wnei’e/i; irregularity, micwenncss. 79. Do 
these irregularities change the form of the Earth, and why not } 80. WTiat can 
you say of the water I 81. Of the atmosphere82. For what purposes was the 
Earth formed? 



46 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


84. The. Creator has made the world a school for man, by leaving him to 
use his reason and strength in obtaining the products of the earth, that he 
may learn industry; and by leaving difficulties and dangers in his way, to 
teach him perseverance and courage. 

When he neglects his duty, or abuses the gifts of God, he is disciplined 
by want or pain, that he may learn to be careful and temperate. But in 
spite of all his care, he is often lel't to suffer, and at last to die, to teach 
him his dependence on the Creator, and to lead him to prepare for a better 
world 5 while conscience and revelation are given, to direct him to ever¬ 
lasting happiness. 


NATURAL DIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 

GREAT DIVISIONS. 

85. Natural divisions are those which belong to the' 
Earth itself, and are made by the Creator; and these seldom 
change materially. 

86. In order to describe the sea more conveniently ^ the 
various parts which seem to form its natural divisions, or 
branches, are called by distinct names. The five larges? 
portions of the sea are called oceans. 

87. The little Map of the World, figure 40, shows the 
hemispheres, with the oceans in the middle; and we see 
two great oceans extending from North to South, called the 
Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. 



88. These oceans terminate in tivo others around the poleSj 
called the Northern or Arctic Ocean (marked N. O.), and 
the Southern or Antarctic Ocean. 

89. A branch of the Southern Ocean, extending north¬ 
ward, forms the fifth ocean, which is called the Indian 
Ocean. 


IT. D. I<. W. 85. What are natural divisions? 86. What are oceans? 
87. What are the great oceans ? 88. What two others are there round the poles ? 
89. What branch is there of the Southern Ocean ? 











natural 1>IV1S10N£> of land and water. 47 


90. In the following map of the hemispheres, with the 
land in the middle, we see two great portions of land, which 
are called continents. 



(41) Western Hemisphere. Lasiern Hemisphere. 


91. The continent on which we live, in the western 
hemisphere, is called the Western Continent, and contains 
North and South America. The other, in the eastern hem¬ 
isphere, is called the Eastern Continent, and contains 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. 

The earth is divided into eastern and western hemispheres by the me¬ 
ridian of the Canary Isles, formerly called the first meridian, which is still 
used by the German and some other geographers. {See IT 30.) 

92. Around these continents, and in the midst of these 
oceans, w'e see many smaller portions of land surrounded 
by water, which are called islands. 

Tl’lie continents are really vast islands, and New Holland is called a con¬ 
tinent by some geographers. In this work it is classed among islands. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS OF THE HEMISPHERES. 

Fig. 40 and dfT Which is the largest, the Atlantic or- the Pacific Ocean? 
Which is the broadest ? Which lies E. of the Western Continent ? 
Which W. ? Which ocean washes the eastern coast of the Eastern Con¬ 
tinent ? Which the western coast ? 

What ocean is N. of the Eastern Continent ? What of the Western 7 
What is nearly the shape of the Northern Ocean ? (See fig. 32.) What 
of the Southern Ocean ? (Fig. 33.) V/hat branch of the Southern Ocean 
extends into the Eastern Continent ? What grand divisions of the land 
bound the Indian Ocean on the N., E., and W. ? Which of the oceans has 
nearly the form of the letter S ? Which must we cross in going from 
America to Europe or Africa? From America to Asia or New Holland? 
Wliich ocean has the greatest number of islands ? Which the least ? 

- Map of the World. Which is the largest of the two continents ? Which 

90. What are the two great portions of land called ? 91. What continent is 
that on which we live ? WTiat is the other continent called, and what does it 
contain .> 92. ^Vhat other portions of land are there I (Ex.) 

3 



















48 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


is the longest from IN', to S.? Which from E. to W. ? Which is the nar¬ 
rowest? Which has the greatest number of islands on the IN.? Which 
on the E. ? 

Which is the largest island on the globe, sometimes called a continent ? 
What others of large size near it ? What large ones along the coast N. of 
these ? What large islands on the western coast of the Eastern Continent ? 
What in the Indian Ocean ? Which are the largest between the two por¬ 
tions of the Western Continent ? Which on the N. E. coast of N. Amer¬ 
ica ? ( Iceland belongs to a kingdom of Europe ; and Greenland to the 

Arctic Regions.) 

Wha^group of islands in the Pacific Ocean in the latitude of Cuba, or 
about 20° N. ? What groups in the latitude of Madagascar, or about 18° 
S, ? Mention the small islands in the Atlantic. In the .Southern Ocean. 

//. — What is the most northern point of the Eastern Continent ? What llm 
most southern ? Between what latitudes, then, does it lie.’ Through what 
zones does it extend ? What is the most southern point of the Western Conti¬ 
nent.’ Between what latitudes, and in what zones, does it lie.’ Between what 
longitudes from London does the Wefstorn Continent lie ? What is the difference 
of time between its extremities.’ What are the longitudes and difference of time 
of the extremes of the Eastern Continent 


SUBDIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 























SUBDIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 


49 


ing peninsulas and capes. In others, the water indents and 
divides the land with gulfs, and bays, and other branches of 
the ocean. Each continent and ocean appears to form a 
body, with many members, or branches, extending from it. 

94. The natural divisions of land and water resemble 
each other in their general forms, as may be seen in the 
following comparative description. The engraving 42 
shows how they are marked on maps. 

Land* Water. 


95. {a) A continent is one 95. {b) An ocean is one of 
of the largest portions of land the largest portions of water 
on the globe. on the globe. 



(43) Lake and Island. 


96. (a) An island is a 
smaller portion of land entire¬ 
ly surrounded by water. (Sec 
engraving 43.) 

97. (a) A large collection 
of islands is called an archi¬ 
pelago ; as the Indian Archi¬ 
pelago, or the islands S. E. 
of India. 


96. (h) A lake is a portion 
of water entirely surrounded 
by land. (See engraving 43.) 

97. (h) A part of the sea 
containing numerous islands 
is sometimes called an archi¬ 
pelago; as the iEgean Sea of 
Greece. 


94 Are the irregularities at all alike .? 95. («) What is a continent.? 95. ( 6 ) An 
ocean 96. (a) An island 96. (&) A lake ? 97. {a) What is an archipelago as 
regards the land .? 97. {!>) What as reg ards the sea ? _ 

♦ Let the definitions be learned in the order of numbers and figures 5 first 
95 (a), then 95 (A); 93 («), 96 (&), &c. 


3 























60 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Land. 

9S. (a) A coast or shore is 
that part of the land which 
lies next the water, 

A ship or island near the coast is 
said to be on the coast; or sometimes 
off the coast; that is, opposite to it. 

99. (a) A cape is a portion 
of land projecting into the 
water. The point in which 
such a projection terminates 
is also called a cape. 



(44) Cape Henry. 


Some capes are low, like Cape Hen¬ 
ry, on one side of Chesapeake Bay 5 
and some are high, like the Korth 
Cape of Europe ; as in the engravings. 
A promontory is a high cape. 


Water. 

98. (h) That part of the 
sea which lies near the coast 
of a country is called the 
waters of that country. 

Thus, tliat part of the sea which 
lies within 9 miles of the shore of the 
United States, is called the toaters 
of the United States.'’ 

99. (6) A bay or gulf \s a 
portion of 'Water extending 
into the land, with a broad 
opening. 



(45) North Cape. 


In T^orway, a small bay or gulf is 
culled a fiord ; in Scotland, a frith, 
or loch ; and in Ireland, a lotigh j 
but loch and lough are also used for 
lake. 


100. These names have been frequently given to ditferent 
portions of land and water by mariners and travellers, who 
were not exact; and we hud that the names do not always 
agree with these descriptions. 

Thus, Hudson’s Bay is a large portion of an ocean almost 
surrounded by land, and as truly a sea as the Mediter¬ 
ranean. The lied Sea is often called the Arabian Gulf. 
We must, therefore, study the maps before wc cm under¬ 
stand the mode of using these names. 


98. (a) What is a coast? 98. (i) What are the waters of a country? 99. (a) 
What is a cape ? What is a promontory ? 99. {b) What is a bay or gulf? What 
are small bays sometimes called? 100, Have tliese names always been given 
with exactness ? 

















SUBDIVISIONS OF LAND AND WATER. 


51 


KXKUCISES OX THK MAPS. 

What continents do yon find on the Map of the World ? What oceans 7 
What are some of the islands named on that map ? What archipelago, or 
large collection of islands, do you find between North and South America 7 
What lakes do you find on the Physical Map of North America ? What 
country is on the coast of N. America, on the Atlantic Ocean, or the eastern 
coast? What is the most eastern cape of N. America ? What bay is near 
it 7 What is the most western cape 7 What seas and gulfs do you find on 
the map ? 

Subdivisions — continued. 



Peninsula and Bay or Harbor of Gibraltar. 
Land. Water. 


101. (a) A peninsula is a 101. (6) A sea is a portion 
portion of land almost siir- of an ocean almost surround- 
rounded by water. eel by land. 

Tlie whole body of salt water on 
the globe, is called the sea, and not 
a sea. 

• A. salt lake is often called 

a sea; as the Caspian Sea. 

102. A harbor is a small 
slieltered bay, or little sea, 
where ships may anchor. 

The engraving 16, shows the Rock of Gibraltar, on a peninsula enclosing 
a bay or large harbor. The southern point on the right is called Cape Eu- 
ropa. The land opposite is Africa; and between them are the Straits of 
Gibraltar. ___ 

Ex. 101. (a) What is a peninsula.^ 101. (7') What is a sea What else is 
called a sea.’ 102. What is a harbor ? 











52 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


hand. 

103. (a) An isthmus is a 
strip or neck of land, con¬ 
necting a peninsula with the 
main land, or uniting one por¬ 
tion of land with another. 


106. (a) A road on the 
land, is an open passage for 
travellers. 


107. (a) A river is a stream 
of water flowing through the 
land. 

108. (a) A stream which 
flows into, or out of, another 
stream, is called a branch. 

109. The deepest part of a 
river is called the channel. 

Rivers are marked on maps by 
crooked lines, which are smallest 
where the rivers rise, or begin to flow, 
and largest where they empty, or flow 
into some other body of water. 


Water. 

103. (6) A strait is a pas¬ 
sage of water, connecting one 
sea or portion of water with 
another. It is often called 
the straits. 

104. A channel is a large 
passage of water between two 
portions of land. 

105. A sound is a passage 
of water which is usually 
smaller, and more shallow, 
than a channel. 

106. (/>) A road in the sea 
is an open passage, where 
ships may pass and anchor. 
It is sometimes called a road¬ 
stead, or roads. 

107. (6) A current is a 
stream of water running 
through the sea. 

108. (6) A current which 
flows into, or out of, another 
current, is also called a 
branch. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

What peninsulas do you see on the Physical Map of N. America ? What 
isthmus on this map, and what portions of land does it unite ? What sea 
lies S. of N. America ? What straits W. of N. America? What seas do 
you find on the Physical Map of Europe ? What straits ? What channels 'f 
(On the Map of Europe, the passage from the Cattegat to the Baltic Bea is 
called “ The Sound.’') What sounds can you find on the Physical Map of 
the United States ? ' j 


103. (a) What is an istlimus ? 103. (b) What is a strait ? 104. What is a chan¬ 
nel ? 105. A sound.? 106. («) What is a road on the land.? 106. (6) What is a 
road in the sea .? What is it sometimes called .? 107. (a) What is a river.? 107. (b) 
What is a current.? 108. What is a branch .? 109. What is the deepest part of a 
river called .? How are the different parts of rivers marked on maps.? (Ex.) 




SOLID BODY OF THE EARTH. 


53 


SOLID BODY OF THE EARTH. 

110. The solid body of the Earth lies under the sea, and 
forms its bed or bottom. It also rises above the sea, and 
forms the land. In both parts its surface is uneven, with 
mountains, valleys, and plains, which receive different names, 
according to their situation. 

On the Land. In the Sea. 



[4bl) Mountain and T’ahle Land. (48) Island and Shoal. 


111. is alevel tract 
of land ; as atp. A plain with¬ 
out water or plants is called a 
desert. (Sec eng ravins:-, p.329.) 

11 2. (a) A mountain is a 
very high hill, or one of the 
highest points of land ; as at w. 

112. (b) A table land is a 
high plain, or the flat top of 
a mountain; as at t. It is 
also called a plateau (plat- 
toe). 

Deserts are generally sandy, and 
are naarked on maps by small dots. 


112. (c) A mountain or 
table land, rising from the 
bed of the sea, is called an 
island, if it forms dry land; 
as at i. 

112. (d) If it is near the 
surface, but is covered with 
water, it is called a bank, 
shoal, or rock ; as at s. 

Several rocks together form a reef. 

Banks generally consist of sand, 
and are marked on maps by small 
dots 5 as in fig. 42, p. 48. 


S- B. B. DO. What lies under the sea? Has the solid body of the Earth a 
regular or even surface ? 111. What is a plain ? A desert ? 119. (a) What is a 

mountain on the land ? 119, (&) What is a table land? 119. (c) What name is 

given to mountains and table lands rising from the bed of the sea, above the 
water ? 112. (d) What name is given when they are partly covered with water ? 

What is a reef? How are deserts and banks marked on a map ? 



















54 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


On the, Land. 

113. When a mouiit.iin ex¬ 
tends for some distance with¬ 
out interruption, like the roof 
of a house, it is called a ridge. 

114. (a) Several moun¬ 
tains or ridges, in one line, 
are called a range or chain. 
{See the Andes^ p. 240.) 

114. (6) When mountains 
are clustered together, they 
are called a group. A group, 
in which several chains or 
ridges meet, is called a knot. 

114. (c) A land covered 
wdth mountains is a mountain 
land. 

115. (a) A volcano is a 
mountain which throws out 
fire or smoke, or shows other 
marks of internal fire. {See 
engraving for Italy, p. 289.) 

116. (a) A valley is the 
hollow between two hills or 
mountains. A valley sur¬ 
rounded by high lands is 
called a basin. 

117. («) Some rivers run 
in narrow valleys ; but rivers 
with many branches occupy 
a basin. The basin of a 
river is the country which 
contains a river and its 
branches ; as, the basin of the 
Mississippi. 


In the Sea. 


114. {d) Islands are ar- 
ranged, like mountains, in 
ranges, chains, and groups. 
A mountain land in the sea, 
forms an archipelago. 

115. {b) A burning moun¬ 
tain on the bed of the sea is 
also called a volcano. 


116. (6) Hollows in the 
bed of the sea are also called 
valleys or basins. 

On the land, valleys and basins 
often form thebedsof rivers and lakes. 

117. {b) The country 
around a bay or sea usually 
forms a basin, which takes 
the same name; as, the basin 
of Hudson^s Hay. 


113. What is a ridge? 114. (a) What is a range or chain of mountains? 114. 
{h) What is a group? What is a knot? 114. (c' What is a mountain land? 

114. (rf) How are islands arranged? 115. (a) What is a volcano on land? 

115. (6) What on the sea? 116. (a) What is a valley on the land? 116. (6) Is 
there any thing like this in the sea ? What is a basin ? 117. (a) How do rivers 
run? What is the basin of a river ? 117. (6) What is the basin of a sea? 




THE SEA. 


55 


On the Land. 

118. A declivity is the sloping side of a mountain, or the 
slope from high land to low land, or towards the sea. 

Mountains and valleys are represented on maps by shaded lines coming 
to a point, as in fig. 42, p. 48. 

119. Rivers begin to rise in high lands, and flow down 
the declivities towards the sea. Hence we may generally 
consider the places where the rivers rise as the highest parts 
of the country ; and the declivity descends, or the land slopes, 
the same way that the rivers run. 

EXKRCISES ON THE MAPS. 

What chain of mountains do you find on the Physical Map of North 
America ? What bank or shoal on the north-eastern coast ? What long 
chain of mountains do you see on the Physical map of S. America ? Which 
way do the great rivers run from it ? Which way, then, is the longest slope 
or declivity ? Do any rivers flow towards the W. ? [The toestem declivity 
of the Andes is very narrmv, and the rivers tire generally too small to be 
drawn on the map.'\ 


THE SEA. 

120. The sea covers two thirds of the surface of the 
Earth, and is the great re.servoir of water upon it. It is also 
the highway for thousands of ships engaged in commerce, 
that is, in carrying merchandise from one country to 
another. Hence its description is an important part of 
Geography. 

121. The water of the sea is salt, and is thus preserved 
from corruption; and on account of its saltness, it is not 
frozen so soon as fresh water. 

122. The surface of the sea is generally level. It is 
made uneven only by the waves, which never rise more 
than 20 or 30 feet above its common level. The motion 
of the waves resembles that of a forest, or of a field of grain, 
waving backward and forward with the wind. 

123. The depth of the sea is different in different parts ; 
and its bed is evidently uneven with hills and valleys, 

118. What is a declivity? 119. How do rivers begin to rise and flow down? 
How can we know which way the land slopes? Ex. S, 120. How much of 
the Earth is covered by the sea ? 121. What can you say of the water of the sea ? 

122. What of its surface ? What is the rising and falling of the waves like ? 

123. What mn you say of the depth of the sea ? 





56 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


mountains and plains. The tops of the mountains some¬ 
times appear above the water, in the form of rocks, shoals, 
and islands ; and in most parts of the sea the depth of the 
valleys cannot be sounded with the longest line. 

The greatest depth yet sounded is 36,000 feet, or nearly 7 miles •, but 
soundings at great depths are uncertain, on account of the under currents, 
and the increased density of the water, which prevent the lead and line 
from sinking regularly. 



(49) Section of the JVorth Sea and English Channel. 


The preceding section of the North Sea, from C. Lindesnaes, (C. Lin.,) 
in Norway, through the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, to the 
edge of soundings W. of C. Finisterre and S. of Ireland, shows the varying 
depth in these waters, and the deep chasm on the coast of Norway. The 
letter S. indicates the same slioal in the Straits of Dover, which is marked 
on the section across these straiLs, (page 43,) where we see two valleys of 
different depths, divided by it. 


(II») Tire Sea — continvcd. 

124. In trarersiiig- an ocean, v.'e may often sail for weeks, and even 
months, without seeing land, encompassed continually by'^ a wide cir¬ 
cle of water, bounded only by the sky. 

125. We shall sometimes find ourselves driven forward, by a cur¬ 
rent which resembles a river in the midst of the ocean ; and not un- 
frequently is of a different color and temperature from the rest of the 
water. 

126. In the Torrid Zone, two great currents cross the Atlantic and 
Pacific Oceans from East to West; and when they strike the land 
send off branches to the North and South, which carry warm water 
to colder regions. 


(II.) S. 124. Tn traversing an ocean, can we always see land ? 125. What 
currents do we find ? 12G. What currents in the Torrid Zone.? 


* For the second course. 

















































































THE SEA, 


57 


1l7. Two olher great curreiits of cold water flow from tlie poles 
and unite with the returning equatorial currents in carrying cool 
water to the hot regions. Besides these, many smaller currents are 
round m various parts of the ocean. 

128. On approaching tlie land, we perceive that the sea rises in 
tides, twice every day, in some places to a great height, and falls as 
oiten below its common level. 

Tides are caused by the attraction of the moon. They are highest in 
any place when the moon has just passed the meridian of that place, or 
the opposite meridian 5 and lowest, when it is nearly rising or setting. 
Hence they are 50 minutes later every day, as the moon comes so much 
later to the meridian. 

129. On an open sea-coast, and especially in the middle of the 
ocean, the tides seldom rise more than a foot, or at most a few feet. 
But in narrow bays or passages, they often rise from 10 to 70 feet; 
and in the Bay of Fundy, they sometimes rise so fast as to carry off 
cattle. 

130. At first thought, the ocean may appear like a useless waste of 
waters, which might have been covered with fertile, inhabited coun¬ 
tries. But further reflection will show us the wise purposes for 
which it was formed by the Creator. 

131. By its saltness and unceasing motion, the sea is made an in¬ 
corruptible reservoir, to preserve the water, which flows from the 
land; and sends back this water, in vapors and clouds, to refresh us 
with rain, and preserve the life of jilants and animals. At the same 
time, it forms one vast mine of salt, spreading over the world, from 
which large quantities are obtained for the use of man. 

132. It is neither so hot in summer nor so cold in winter as the 
land ; and therefore the winds which Mow from it cool the land near it 
in summer, and warm it in winter. Its currents also carry heat from 
the warm regions to the cold, and bring back refreshing coolness to 
the hotter parts of the earth. 

].3;5. The sea ah .unds loilh fish, which furnish vast quantities of 
food for man ; and with animals, which supply us with oil and other 
useful articles. 

134. But the sea is also of great value to man, in furnishing a high¬ 
way for ships, which carry abroad the products of each country, and 
bring back in exchange the valuable products of other countries, and 
the useful knowledge of all nations. 


127. What two other great current.?128. What do we perceive on approach¬ 
ing land? 129. How high do the tides rise in different places? 130. How does 
the ocean appear at first thought? Is this true? 131. What is the use of its 
saltness? How does it supply the land with water? What useful article do we 
obtain from it ? 132. Is it warmer or colder than the land ? What effect has this ? 

What effect have the currents? 133. What food does the sea furnish toman? 
What other useful articles? 134. How else is the sea very useful? What i 9 
commerce ? 






58 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


THE OCEANS. 

135 The tcaters of the sea occupy five principal basins, 
and are tVus divided into the five great oceans already men¬ 
tioned—the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Northern, the South- 
ern, and the Indian Oceans. 

136. The Northern or Arctic Ocean lies almost in a circle 
around the North Pole, between the northern coasts of the 
two continents. It extends about 3,000 miles, from Beer¬ 
ing’s Straits— which connect it with the Pacific to the 
broad passage which unites it with the Atlantic; and con- 
tains numerous islands. 

137. The Southern Ocean lies around the South Pole, in 
a circular zone about 5,000 miles in diameter, extending to 
Cape Horn, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Holland. 
It contains a considerable number of islands, and it is now 
supposed to embrace a southern continent. 

138. Near the poles, these oceans are covered with ice. 
In latitude 70°, there is usually floating ice at all seasons. 
In latitude 80°, in the Northern Ocean, and 74° or 76° in 
the Southern, we meet with those vast, immovable fields of 
ice \vhich seem like continents, and which no ship can pass 
through. 

139. Hence these oceans are of little value for commerce; 
but they abound loith the whale, the seal, and the walrus, 
whose oil and other products supply the inhabitants of the 
land with food, and light, and clothing. 

Besides the oil which all these animals yield, the skin of the seal is a 
valuable fur; the mouth of the whale furnishes what is called whalebone ; 
and the tusks of the walrus resemble ivory. These articles are much used 
in America and Europe. 

140. The Indian Ocean lies in the Torrid Zone. It 
extends 6,000 miles from West to East, between Africa and 
New Holland, and about 4,000 from North to South. It 
never freezes, and forms the highway of very important 
commerce^ at all seasons; but it has variable and dangerous 
currents, and is liable to violent storms. 

Oa 135. How is the sea divided.^ 136. Describe the Northern or Arctic Ocean. 
137. The Southern. 138. How are these oceans near the poles? Where do we 
find floating ice? Where fields of ice? 139. What is the value of these oceans 
for commerce ? What useful articles do they furnisli ? 140. Describe the Indian 
Oc«aQ 



THE OCEANS. 


59 


141. The Pacijic Ocean extends from Beering’s Straits, 
about 8,000 miles, to the limits of the Southern Ocean; and 
from America to Asia, about 11,000 miles, or nearly half 
round the globe. It contains numerous clusters of islands, 
lying chiefly between the tropics. 

142. The Atlantic Ocean is from 3,000 to 4,000 miles in 
breadth, between America and Europe, and 9,000 in length, 
from the Northern to the Southern Ocean. Between Nor¬ 
way and Greenland, the breadth is not more than 700 
miles; between the capes of Africa and South America, it 
is about 1,500. 

143. The waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans do 
not freeze, except on the coasts in very cold climates or 
seasons, and in those branches which are enclosed by the 
land, and rendered fresh by the rivers which empty into 
them. They are therefore navigable at all seasons; and 
are covered with the ships 
of all nations, laden with the 
productions of every part of 
the earth. 

144. But they arc fre¬ 

quently obstructed, during 
the spring and summer, by 
the fields and islands of ice 
which break off from the icy 
continents around the poles, 
and which sometimes float as Iceberg. 

far as latitude 40°. The appearance of these masses of ice 
in the glitter of the sunbeams is often grand and beautiful; 
but they are dangerous to ships, and chill the air for a great 
distance around. 

The floating fields of ice are sometimes so extensive that their limits can¬ 
not be seen from the mast of a ship. Some of the islands, or icebergs, are 
600 feet in height 5 and hundreds are frequently seen at once, surrounding 
a vessel in every direction. The engraving 50 shows one of their various 
forms. The ice even of salt water is almost fresh. 

145. Each of these oceans has various branches, extending 
into the land, and opening other courses for its commerce. 

141. The Pacific. 142. The Atlantic. 143. What can you say of the waters 
of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.^ Are they always navigable.^ 144. What 
obstructions are sometimes found in them ? What is said of the islands of ice ? 
145. What kind of branches has each of these oceans ? (Ex.) 








60 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


It will be useful to examine each separately on the maps, 
with its various branches and smaller divisions. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

It will be seen, on examining the maps of the Atlantic Ocean, Europe, 
and Africa, that the Atlantic Ocean extends into the Eastern Continent, 
forming the Gulf of Guinea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Mediterranean, 
Irish, North, and Baltic Seas. These seas are connected with the ocean 
by straits and channels 5 and each spreads into other smaller branches, 
forming gulfs, bays, and harbors. The following exercises will show their 
connections, and may be extended still farther by the teacher. 

Physical Map of Europe. — What branches or parts of the Atlantic Ocean 
lie between the main land of Europe and the British Isles'? What straits 
connect the North Sea and the British Channel ? What branch or sea ex¬ 
tends from the North Sea, farther into the continent ? What straits con¬ 
nect the North Sea with the Baltic ? What bay South of the British 
Channel ? What sea lies S. of Europe ? What straits lead into it ? What 
branches has the Baltic Sea ? The North Sea ? The Irish Sea ? What 
are the branches of the Mediterranean on the northern coast ? What large 
one on the southern coast ? ( The eastern part of the Mediterranean is 

often called The Levant.) 

Physical Map of N. America. —Describe the principal branches of the 
Atlantic in the northern part of N. America. What are the two branches 
between N. and S. America ? What are the passages leading to each ? 
Mention the branches of Baffin’s Bay. Of Hudson’s Bay. Of the Gulf 
of Mexico. Of the Caribbean Sea. What straits connect the Arctic 
Ocean with the Pacific ? What branches of the Pacific are there on the 
western coast of N. 'America ? 

Physical Map of U. States. — What are the principal branches of the At¬ 
lantic, on the eastern coast of the United States ? 

Physical Map of — What great branches of the Pacific on the eastern 
coast of Asia ? What gulfs in the Chinese Sea ? What passages connect 
the Pacific and Indian Oceans ? What are the two great branches of the 
Indian Ocean, extending into Asia ? What branches has the Sea of Arabia ? 

(II.)'' COASTS OF THE OCEANS. 

146. llie usefulness of an ocean in commerce depends, not merely on the 
freedom of navigation, but on the nature of its coasts, and the number of 
branches which extend into the land, and give passage, and safe anchorage, 
for ships. 

147. On loio, sandy coasts, like those of the Southern United States, the 
low tide leaves a broad beach, entirely dry, twice a day 5 and thus renders 
it more unsafe for a ship to come near it. Such coasts are usually straight 

C. O. 146. On what does the usefulness of an ocean in commerce depend ? 
147. What is the case on low, sandy coasts ? 

* For the second cour.se. 




THE LAND. . ' 61 

also, with few indentations or harbors to receive ships} and on both ac¬ 
counts, they are not favorable to commerce. 

148. Bold or high coasts, like those of the Northern United States, gen¬ 
erally have deep water, and ships may safely come near them. They are 
usually crooked, or indented with numerous bays and harbors j and on both 
accounts, are more favorable to commerce. 

149. The North Atlantic Ocean has a greater extent of high coast, and a 
larger number of branches, than most other parts of the sea. Hence the 
most extensive commerce in the world is carried on in this part of the sea, 
and on the coasts of Europe and North America which border on it. 

150. The coasts of South America and Africa, on the South Atlantic 
Ocean, have few bays or harbors, and a considerable part of them are low. 
Hence we find that these regions have less commerce than any other part 
of the world. 

151. The western or Asiatic coast of the Pacific Ocean is very much in¬ 
dented with bays, and harbors, and channels ; and hence the nations living 
upon it have been, for ages, actively engaged in commerce on the ocean. 

152. The eastern or North American coast of the Pacific has few bays or 
harbors, and is still inhabited chiefly by Indians, without commerce or sea- 
ships. 

153. The coasts of the Northern and Southern Oceans are so constantly 
covered with ice, that their bays and harbors are of little use for commerce, 
except for a few weeks in the year. 

THE LAND. 

154. The form of the land is very irregular. The con¬ 
tinents appear as if shattered by some great earthquake, 
and the islands like fragments scattered around them. 

155. The land is also unequally distributed among the 
different parts of the world, as in the following maps of the 
Northern and Southern Hemispheres, represented as they 
would appear from points above the poles. 


What effect does this produce on them as regards commerce.^ Where are 
such coasts found 1 148. What is said of bold and high coa.sts.^ Are they favor¬ 
able to commerce.? Wliy are they so.? Where are some such coasts? 149. 
What is said of tlie coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean.? What effect does 
this have on the countries lying on it.? 150. What can you say of the coast on 
the South Atlantic Ocean.? IIow are the countries there with regard to com¬ 
merce .? 151. What is said of the western or Asiatic coast of the Pacific, and its 
commerce? 152. Of the eastern or North American coast of the Pacific Ocean.? 
153. Of the coasts of the Northern and Southern Oceans? L, 154. What is 
the form of the land .? How do the continents appear.? 155. How is the land dis 
tributed.? 



62 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 



(51) Northern Hemisphere. 


/Mi V" -<1 

r^Tr 

r 

\ 

\ 1 


A t) / 

\ 

••••Vv 

P O'A/ 


Southern Hemisphere. 


156. Here we see that the greater part of the land is in 
the Northern Hemisphere, of which it covers one half. But 
in the Southern Hemisphere, we find only the narrow ex¬ 
tremities of the continents, and the greater part appears to 
be covered with water. 

157. If we suppose ourselves looking down upon the 
earth from a point over London, and draw a map of the 
hemisphere around it, we shall find that it includes nearly 
all the land upon the globe; while the opposite hemisphere 
is almost covered with water, as represented in the maps 
numbered 52. Hence these have been called the land and 
water hemispheres. 



(52) Land Hemisphere. Water Hemisphere. 


THE CONTINENTS. 

15S. The continents, as we have seen, differ from each 
other in their form and direction. The Western Continent 


156. Where is the greater part of the land, and how great.!* What is said in 
this respect of the Southern Hemisphere ? 157. What point is the centre of the 
land hemisphere ? What of the opposite hemisphere ? O. 158. How do the 
continents differ from each other 
















THE CONTINENTS. 


611 

is narrow, and is longest from North to South. The East¬ 
ern Continent is broad, and is longest from East to West. 

159. The continents resemble tack other, in being divided 
by large seas in the centre. Both are also divided by 
smaller seas, gulfs, and bays, into numerous peninsulas. 

16J. Both continents terminate in bold and lofty promon¬ 
tories ;— the Western Continent in Cape Horn on the 
South, and the Eastern in the Cape of Good Hope on the 
South, and the North Cape on the North. 

161. It is ^so remarkable, that all the principal penin-^ 
sulas of both continents extend towards the South; and both 
terminate in narrow points, in the Southern Ocean. 

162. The Eastern Continent was first known in history, 
and contains most of the inhabitants of the earth. 

163. It is the I ngest body of land upon tlie globe, con¬ 
taining 32^ millions of square miles. Its greatest length 
is 10,090 miles, and its greatest breadth 8,000. 

164. The ^Vestern Continent was formerly inhabited en¬ 
tirely by Indians. In 1492, it was discovered by Christo¬ 
pher Columbus, and made known to Europeans, whose 
descendants now possess the greater part of it. 

165. The Western Continent is not half so large as the 
Eastern, and contains only 14 millions of square miles. Its 
greatest length is 8,000 miles, and its greatest breadth is 
4,000 miles. But at the Isthmus of Panama, it is only 30 
miles broafi; and at Cape Horn, it is narrowed down to 
a point. 


EXliKClSES ON THE SfAPS. 

Do the continents appear alike in shape, as you see them on the Map of 
t!ie World ? W’^hich is the narrowest and longest ? Is the Kastern Conti¬ 
nent narrow ? What branches of the Atlantic Ocean run into the conti¬ 
nents ? What peninsulas can you see on the Map of the World, extending 
t.) liie South ? What on the Map of j\. America ? W'hat on the Map of 
Europe? What peninsulas on the Map of Europe extend tow'ards the 
North ? What in N. America? [Denviark in Europe, and Yucatan in N. 
America, are the only important peninmlas exiendiiv^ towards the North.] 


15.9. How do the continents resenible each other .’ 169, How do both terminate ? 

161. What is remarkable in the i>eninsulas? IG2. Which continent was first 
known in history? I‘i3. What is its size? 161. Which continent was discov¬ 
ered by Columbus ? By whom was it formerly inhabited ? 165. How large is it? 




64 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 

166. The seas which penetrate the continents form 
natural divisions in each, America is divided, by the Gulf 
of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, into tu'o parts — North 
and South America — wdiich are united by the Isthmus of 
Panama or Darien. North America forms the main body 
of the continent; and South America is a peninsula pro¬ 
jecting towards the South. 

167. T'he Mediterranean Sea divides the \'^stern part of 
the Eastern Continent into two parts — Europe on the 
North, and Africa on the South. East of these is Asia, 
which forms the great undivided body of the continent. 

168. Both Europe and Africa are almost surrounded by 
water, and may properly be considered as peninsulas of 
Asia. Africa is connected with Asia by the narrow Isth¬ 
mus of Suez; but Europe has a broad band of union 
extending from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea. 

169. These natural divisions of the continents, Europe, 
Asia, Africa, North and South America, were formerly 
called quarters of the globe, but are now called grand 
divisions. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAP OF THE WORLD. 

A country or division of the world is said to be bounded by that sea, 
river, mountain, or division wliich lies next to it. It is best to repeat the 
boundaries always in the same order, North, East, South, and West — on 
the N. going from W. to E.; on the E. going from N- to S.; on the S. 
going from E. to W. 5 and on the W. going from S. to W. 

Thus Europe is bounded on the North by the Arctic Ocean; on the East 
by the Ural Mountains and Ural River, which separate it from Asia; on the 
South by tlie Mediterranean and its branches; and on the West by the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

Look on the map and describe the boundaries of Europe. How is Africa 
bounded on the N., E., S., and W. 1 How is Asia bounded ? South Amer¬ 
ica ? North America ? 

What is the most southern cape of America ? What of Africa ? What 
narrow peninsula of Asia extends farthest South ? What is the most north¬ 
ern point you can find of the Western Continent ? What of the Eastern ? 


G. 1>. If. 166. WTiat are the natural divisions of the Western Continent? 
167. What are those of the Eastern Continent ? 168. How may Europe and Africa 
be considered as regards Asia ? 169. What are all these divisions of the con¬ 

tinents called ? (Ex.) 



GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 


65 


Which extends farthest North? What is the most eastern cape of South 
America ? What is the most western of Africa ? What is the most west¬ 
ern cape of North America ? The most eastern of Asia? 

What part of America approaches nearest to Africa? What to Asia? 
What is nearest to Europe ? 

170. The numerous islands of the Pacific Ocean are 
considered, by late geographers, as forming the sixth grand 
division of the world, which is called Oceanica. It com¬ 
prises the Indian Archipelago or Malaysia, Australia, and 
Polynesia. 

171. Considerable tracts of land have also been discov¬ 
ered around the poles, which are not connected with either 
continent, and are called the Polar llegions. The 
northern are the Arctic Kegions, and the southern, the 
Antarctic Regions. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Map of the Pacific Ocean. — What large group of islands lies next south¬ 
east of Asia ? Which way from these are N. Holland and Australia ? In 
what direction is Polynesia ? WJiat grand division do these islands form ? 
Name some of the principal groups of islands in Polynesia. Which lie 
nearly West of Mexico ? What islands are' nearly West of South America ? 

Map of the World. — What are the largest portions of land in the Arctic 
Regions, around the North Pole ? Which lie North of Europe ? Which 
North of N. America ? What lands do you find in the Antarctic Regions ? 

GENERAL EXERCISES ON THE MAP OF THE WORLD. 

What grand divisions of the world does the equator cross ? Which 
three grand divisions lie wholly N. of the equator ? Which one lies chiefly 
S. of it ? What part of Africa is S. of the equator ? What large islands 
are wholly S. of the equator? 

What countries does the Arctic Circle cross ? The Antarctic Circle ? 
The Tropic of Cancer ? The Tropic of Capricorn ? How many zones are 
there, and how situated ? (p. 33.) Which two divisions of the world lie 
chiefly in the Torrid Zone ? Which two extend a little way into the South¬ 
ern Temperate Zone ? Which two are chiefly in the Northern Temperate 
Zone ? Which one extends from the Torrid, across the Temperate, into the 
Northern Frigid Zone ? What two others extend into the Northern Frigid 
Zone ? In what zone is the greater part of Greenland ? The islands of 
Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen ? In what zone is Iceland ? In what zone 
are Beering’s Straits? Is there any land known in the Southern Frigid 
Zone? Which oceans extend through all the zones but the Frigid? 

170. Wliat other grand division of the world, and what does it embrace? 171 
What other regions can you mention as smaller divisions? (Ex.) 




66 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Which are chiefly confined to the Frigid Zones ? In which zone do we 
find the greatest extent of land 1 In which the least 1 In which the great¬ 
est extent of water? The least? In which do we find most islands? 
What great island lies half in the Torrid, and half in the S. Temperate Zone ? 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAND DIVISIONS. 

172. The grand divisions of the Earth differ from each 
other in situation, and, of course, in climate, and produce 
different kinds of plants and fruits. North America and 
Europe lie chiefly in the Temperate Zone ; South Au'.erica 
and Africa, chiefly in the Torrid Zone; and Asia alone 
extends through all the Northern Zones. 

173. The grand divisions are very different in size. Asia 
is the largest division of the continents, and Europe is the 
smallest. Africa is next to Asia in extent. North America 
and South America are each smaller than Africa, but each 
is about twice as large as Europe. 

174. The grand divisions differ remarkably in their out¬ 
lines ; some having a smooth, unbroken coast, and others 
being indented with numerous bays and harbors. 

175. Thus it will be seen on the maps, that Africa and 
South America have a coast almost straight, with few bays 
or harbors. If we measure the line of land which touches 
the sea, we shall find that these divisions have less sea-coast 
in proportion to their size, and therefore less opportunity 
for commerce on the ocean, than any other parts of the 
world. 

176. Asia has a much greater proportion of sea-coast 
than Africa and South xVmerica : North America has twice 
as much as either ; but Europe has four times as much, 
and more countries are open to commerce, in Europe, than 
in any other of the grand divisions. 

177. These divisions differ still more in population, or the 
number of people who inhabit them. Asia probably con- 

e.G.S. 172. How do the grand divisions of the Earth differ from each other ? 
173. Which is the largest of the grand divisions.? Which the smallest.? W'hich 
is of a middle size .? How large is N. America compared with Europe .? If you 
add N. and S. America together, which grand division is nearest to them in size .? 
Are they equal to Africa and Europe together.? 174. Are the grand divisions 
alike in their outlines .? 175. What can you say of the coasts of Africa and South 
America.? 176. What of the coast of Asia.? What proportion of sea-coast has 
N. America.? Europe.? 177. Do the grand divisions differ in population? 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 


1 » 

bi 


tains one halt the inhabitants ot the globe, and Europe one 
quarter; Africa contains more than any other grand division 
except Asia and Europe; and N. and S. America contain 
less than any, except Oceanica, which is the least populous. 

178. The grand divisions dilFer not less in the number of 
inhabitants to a. square mile. Some divisions have many 
on a square mile, and are crowded with people, like Europe; 
and these are said to be populous, or thickly inhabited. 
Others have few on a square mile, and are said to be thinly 
peopled, like America. 

179. Asia is populous, and Europe very populous; but 
Africa is not populous; and N. and S. /imerica are thinly 
inhabited. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 


180. Tun Ckcatok has formed the natural divisions “oj' 
the Earth, wdiich seldom change. But he has given it to 
men for their residence, to be named and divided as they 
find it best. The divisions made by man are called artifi¬ 
cial or political divisions, and are often changed. 

181. The first families, when they became numerous by 
the increase of children and grandchildren,a tribe. 
They resided in tents, or du’ellings, near each other, form¬ 
ing a village, or town, or city, and occupied the land 
around them ; like Jacob and his twelve sons, whose his¬ 
tory we find in the Bible. 

18*2. When the tribes and villages increased, they formed 
a nation, and occupied a large country, like the Israelites. 

183. When men are thus collected together, they find it 
necessary to have a government, wdiich shall make laws, 


How many of the inhabitant/? of the world does Asia contain ? Europe t II.>w 
large a part in both together? tVhich of the r inainder contains the greatest 
number of inhabitants? Which the least? 178. Ilav ’ all the grand divisions 
the same number of inhabitants on a sqimre ind-*? What is a populous country ? 
What is it to be thinly inhabit'd? 179. Which grand divisions are populous? 
What can you say of Africa? AVliat of N. and S. America? How many more 
inhabitants has Europe to a sqmu'e mile than Asia ? How many more than 
North America on a square m D? (Some of the United Stales have as 

viany inhabitants on a square mile as Kurope.) [Q, 181. What divisions of 

the Earth has the Creator formed ? Wluit can you say of the divisions formed by 
man ? 181. Hotv was a triire first formed ? Where did they reside ? What exam¬ 
ple can yon mention ? 182. Wliat took place when the tribes and villages in¬ 
creased ? 183. What, then, became necessar\'= What is the object of govern¬ 

ment ? 





68 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


and punish those who disobey them. Hence we find the 
world divided into separate parts, called states or countries, 
each of which is under one government. 

States are separated on maps by lines called boundaries, which are usually 
marked by dots, 

184. States receive various titles, according to their 
government. A principality is a state governed by a 
prince; a duchy by a duke; a kingdom by a king; an 
empire by an emperor ; and a republic by representatives 
of the people. 


(III.) STATES AND GOVERNMENTS. 



(53) Absolute Monarchy. 


185. The first kind of government in the world was the patriarchal, 
when every father, or patriarch, governed his own family. Thus the 
people of Lapland, Greenland, NeAv Holland, and some other savage 
nations, still appear to have no other government. 

186. When a family increased to a tribe, the patriarch became a 
chief. The Arabs and North American Indians are governed by 
chiefs, who are sometimes chosen by the tribe. 

* In North America the chiefs were called sachems j in South America, 
caziques ; and in Asia they are still called sheiks or emirs. 

187. When a tribe became large and powerful, the chief often con¬ 
quered other tribes, and governed large countries ; and then he was 


How is the world divided on this account 1 How are states separated and 
marked on maps? 184. Mention some of the titles given to states. S. Q-. 
185. Describe the first kind of government in the world. What examples are 
there of this at the present day ? 186. What is a chief in a tribe. Give some ex¬ 
amples. 187. What took place when a tribe became large and powerful ? 













POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 


69 


called, in Europe, a duke^ prince^ or king ; and in Asia, a khan^ imam, 
rajah, sulfan, or shah. 

188. Wlien a country is governed by one man, the government is 
called a monarchy; and all the governors we have described are 
called monarchs. But lAc country is called a principality, duchy, 
khanate, kingdom, or empire, according to the title of the monarch. 

189. When a monarch governs according to his own will alone, 
the government is called an absolute monarchy ; as in Russia. When 
he IS obliged to govern according to laws made by others—as in 



King. Parliament. 

(51) Limited Monarchy. 

France and Great Britain by a parliament—it is called a limited 
monarchy. 

190. When several states or nations are united under one monarch, 
it is usually called an empire; as the Russian Empire > and the mon¬ 
arch is generally called an emperor, or in Russia, the czar. 

191. A democracy is a government in which the people meet 
together to make laws, as in some of tire small cantons or states of 
Switzerland. 

192. When the people are too numerous to meet together, many 
unite, and choose one man to speak and make laws for them, who is 
called a representative. 

193. The representatixes meet in an assembly, or legislature, to make 
laws; and a governor and judges are cliosen, to judge and execute 
the laws. This government is called a republic; and the states of 
the United States are republics. 


188. What is a monarchy ? What is the country called i 189. What is an 
absolute monarchy? Give an example. What is a limited monarchy.’ Alen- 
tion some examples. 19(>. Wliat is an empire ? What is the monarch called ? 
Mentuin an example. 191. Wliat is a democracy.? Give an example. 199. What 
is a representative? ]9:{. What do representatives do ? VVlio judge and execute 
the laws ? What is tliis governnvent called ? Give example-!. 

















70 


E Li: ME NT 3 OF OEOt'.llAP IIY. 


194. When several states unite, and send representatives to form 
one government over the whole, it is called u confedtrutioTiy like that 
of Glermany, or a federal republic^ like the United States, or Switz¬ 
erland. 



President, Congress. 

{55) Rejmblican Government. 


195. In the United States, the representative? meet at Washington, 
in a congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. The highest officer of the United States is called the. 
president. 

DIVISIONS OF STATES. 

196. In order to govern a state more easily, it is divided 
into smaller parts, called provinces, districts, or counties, 
each of which has its own judge or governor. These parts 
arc subdivided into towns, or cities, or parishes — each with 
its own government also. 

197. When some of the inhabitants of one country emi¬ 
grate to another, and form a settlement under the same 
government, this settlement is called a colony ; as Canada 
is a colony of Great Britain. 

Emigratk is from the Latin words e. out of, and migro, to remove. Im¬ 
migrate is from in, into, and migro, to remove. Hence those who move 
into a country are often called immigrants ; and those who leave it, to gt) 
to some other, are called emigrants. 

Thus our forefathers emigrated from Great Britain to America, and 

194. What is a confederation ? A federal republic ? Give examples. 195. WTiat 
is the American Congress f And of what does it consist ? What is the highest 
officer in the United States called ? S. 196. IJow is a state divided ? 

How are provinces, districts, or counties subdivided ? 197. What is a colony ? 
























































iOIlMS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 71 

formed the colonies of Massachusetts, Virginia, Georgia, &c., which are 
now independent states, but were then under the government of Great Brit¬ 
ain 3 and now many immigrate to our country from various parts of Europe. 

FORMS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 

198. Each grand division of the world has its peculiar 
form and outlines, and is naturally divided into a main 
body, and members or peninsulas. Each is also divided, 
as already mentioned, by political boundaries, into smaller 
portions, called countries or states. 

NORTH AMERICA. 

199. North America is the land of our birth, and one 
of the most favored portions of the world, in its natural 
character and productions. But it is only the third grand 
division in point of size, and is thinly inhabited. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of N. America. — Between what oceans on the E. and W. 
does N. America lie ? What ocean bounds it on the N. ? What bay and 
straits lie on the N-E. ? What is a bay ? ( See IT 99, ( 6 )) What are straits ? 
(U 10^, (6) ) What sound connects the Northern Ocean with Baffin’s Bay ? 
What is a sound? (IT 105.) What straits are there on the N-W. of N. 
America ? What gulf lies S. of N. America ? Mention the boundaries of 
N. America in order, on the N., N-E., E., S-W., and N-W. What pen¬ 
insula and isthmus connect N. and S. America ? What is a peninsula 1 
{See IT 101, (a)) What is an isthmus ? (IT 103, (a)) 

What bay runs into the continent on the N-E. ? What straits lead to it ? 
What branches has Hudson’s Bay ? What gulf between the Island of 
Newfoundland, on the N-E. coast, and the main land ? What straits lead 
to it from the N. ? What bays are next S-W. from the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence ? What other bays and sounds do you find on the eastern coast of 
N. America ? What bays in the Gulf of Mexico ? What bay and gulf are 
on each side of the Isthmus of Panama ? What long, narrow gulf on the 
south-western coast of N. America ? What bays and sounds on the north¬ 
western coast ? 

What peninsulas do you find on the N-E. coast of N. America ? What 
bays form peninsulas on the eastern coast ? What peninsulas do you find 
in the Gulf of Mexico? What peninsulas are there on the coast of the 
Pacific Ocean ? 


!P« Sa Ufa 198. How is each grand division of the world subdivided ? What 
are countries I 199. What can you say of N. America I (Er.) 

1 



72 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


What is a cape 1 (See 11 99, (a)) What is the most eastern cape of the 

continent of N. America ? What is the most western ? What is the most 
southern of Florida? What are the principal capes on the Northern 
Ocean, lying on Beering’s Straits ? What on the Atlantic ? What on the 
Pacific Ocean ? 

FORM AND COAST. 

200. The main body of North 
America may he enclosed in a tri¬ 
angle. But many branches of the 
sea indent this body of land, and 
many members project from it, so 
that the peninsulas form nearly 
of the whole surface. 

This triangle is formed by a line dr.awn 
from C. Charles to C. Prince of Wales, and 
two other lines from those capes to Mexico. 

201. Hence North America has 
a greater proportioji of sea-roast, for its extent, than any 
other part of the world, except Europe. Even its northern 
regions are open to commerce, by the great inland sea of 
Hudson’s Bay, and numerous branches of the oceans ; and 
its great rivers furnish a passage from the sea to the interior. 

202. N. America is also surrounded on the N. and S. 
by numerous islands, which increase its advantages for 
commerce. 

EXfmCISKS ON THE 5IAPS. 

Physical Map of N. America .— What figure will enclose the greatest 
part of N. America ? What peninsulas East of this figure? What two 
W. of it? Is any part of the western coast W. of it? Is there any land 
N. of it ? Is the peninsula of Labrador within this triangle ? 

What islands lie N. of N. America ? What cliain connects it with Asia 
on the W. ? Where is Greenland ? What islands are there at the mouth 
of the R. St. Lawrence ? What is the largest island on the coast of the 
United States ? What islands lie between JN. and S. America? Which is 
the largest ? Which three next in size ? Whai name is given to the most 
northern group of islands ? Mention some of the small islands called the 
Caribbean, lying E. of Porto Rico. Which is the most southern, and 


r. Cm 200. What form will enclose the greater part of N. America ? What 
proportion of its surface do the peninsulas form 201. What proportion of sea- 
coast has N. America ? What can you say of its northern regions ? What of its 
rivers ? 202. What of its islands ? (,Ex.) 




FORMS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 73 


largest ot these ? What islands on the coast of S. America, W. of Tobago ? 
What are the principal islands on the western coast of JN. America ? 

NATURAL DIVISIONS. 

203. North America is united to South America hy the 
Mexican peninsula, which terminates on the South in the 
Isthmus of Panama, only 30 miles in width. 

204. The main body of the continent is divided, by the 
chain of great lakes and the St. Lawrence River, into the 
middle and northern regions. The middle regions lie be¬ 
tween the lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The northern 
declivity lies North of the lakes, and pours its streams into 
Hudson’s Bay and the Northern Ocean. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS, 

Physical Map of N. America. — What unites N. and S. America ? Be¬ 
tween what parts of the ocean does the Mexican peninsula lie ? Between 
what gulfs does the Isthmus of Panama lie ? 

What chain of mountains is there in the western part of JN. America? 
Which way do the Chippewan or Rocky Mountains run ? What rivers 
flow down the western declivity of the Chippewan Mountains ? What 
chain of mountains is there near the Atlantic Ocean ? What is the course 
of the Apalachian Mountains ? 

What are some of the largest rivers on the Atlantic declivity ? What 
great river and basin lie between the Chippewan and Apalachian Moun¬ 
tains ? Where does the Mississippi empty ? What rivers empty into the 
Gulf of Mexico W. of the Mississippi ? 

What rivers do you find running into the Northern Ocean 7 What are 
the principal rivers running into Hudson’s Bay ? Do any of these rivers 
rise S. of 50° N. latitude 1 What chain of lakes and rivers do you find 
below this latitude, running eastward into the Atlantic Ocean ? Which 
way is the declivity N. of these lakes ? {See IT 204.) How may the main 
body of N. America be divided ? (See 1[ 204.) 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

205. North America was formerly inhabited only by 
Indians. The Spaniards discovered and conquered the 


ZTa !>■ 203* What unites N. and S. America? What isthmus is there, and 
what is its width ? 204. How is the main body of the continent divided ? Where 
do the middle regions lie? Where does the northern declivity lie? Ex 
P. Da 235. By whom was N. America formerly inhabited ? Who discovered 
the Mexican peninsula ? 



74 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


Mexican peninsula, and have since formed there the in¬ 
dependent republics of Mexico, and Guatemala, or Central 
America. 

206. The British discovered or conquered the middle and 
northern parts. They now possess all that is North of the 
great lakes; and this part of the continent is therefore 
called British America, including the provinces of Canada, 
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland. 

207. The British colonies in the middle regions have 
become independent, and now form the United States of 
America. Their territory extends from the Gulf of Mexico 
to the great lakes, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
Ocean. 

208. Some of the provinces of Mexico extend into the 
middle region; and the republic of Texas, which was 
formerly a Mexican province, lies within it. 

209. The northern and western parts of N. America are 
occupied chiefly by independent tribes of Indians; and a 
large part of the inhabitants of Guatemala or Central 
America, and Mexico, are also of the Indian race. 

210. The Russians have conquered many tribes of In¬ 
dians on the North-West coast, and established a small 
colony there. The country claimed by them is called 
Russian America. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Political Map of N. America. — How is Guatemala or Central America 
bounded on the IN. and E. ? How is it bounded on the S-W. ? On the 
]N-\V. ? What is its capital? {The capitals are marked on the maps by 
having the name printed in capital letters, as St, Salvador, Mexico, 
Washington, and Montreal.) How is Mexico bounded on the N. ? 
On the E, ? On the S-E. ? On the W. ? What is its capital ? How is 
Texas bounded ? What is its capital ? 

What oceans bound the United States on the E. and W. ? What gulf 
and states on the S. ? What river, lakes, and territory, lie N. of the United 


What republics have been formed there ? 206. Who discovered and conquered 
the middle and northern parts of N. America ? What do the British now possess, and 
what is it called ? 207. What former British colonies have become independent? 
What republic do they now form ? How far does the United States’ territory ex¬ 
tend ? 208. What other states in the middle regions of N. America ? 209. How 
are the northern and western parts of N. America occupied ? 210, What can you 
say of Russian America? (Ex.) 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 75 

States ? What is the capital of the United States ? How is British Amer¬ 
ica bounded ? What is the capital of Canada ? 

(Zla) Between what latitudes and longitudes does N. America lie ? What 
parts of N. America are between 50° and 60° of N. latitude ? Between 
40° and 50° ? Between 30° and 40° ? What is nearly the latitude of 
Quebec? Of Montreal ? Of Washington ? Of New Orleans ? Of Mexico? 
Of the West Indies? Find the longitude, from London, of Philadelphia, 
New Orleans, Mexico, New York, and Boston. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

211. The territory of the United States occupies the 
greater part of the middle regions of North America, from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. It contains two and a 
half millions of square miles, and is equal to more than two 
thirds of Europe in extent. 

212. This territory is naturally divided into three por¬ 
tions by its mountains; (1) the western declivity, or Oregon 
Territory, West of the Chippewan Mountains; (2) the 
eastern declivity. East of the Apalachian Mountains, in¬ 
cluding the states on the Atlantic; and (3) the basin of the 
Mississippi River, lying between the mountains. 

213. The United States thus have a sea-coast of nearly 
2000 miles on the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, 
and of 600 miles on the Pacific Ocean. 

214. But the interior of the United States is also pene¬ 
trated to the centre by great rivers and lakes, which open a 
communication with the ocean. Their shores form a line 
of fresh-water-coast of still greater length than the sea- 
coast; and give the United States advantages for commerce 
which are enjoyed by few countries in the world. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of U. States. — What part of N. America is occupied by 
the territory of the United States? (IT 211.) What mountains cross it on 
the West? What on the East ? What river and basin lie between these 
mountains ? 


17. S. ja. 211. What part of N. America is occupied by the territory of the 
United States ? How many square miles does it contain ? How large is it, com 
pared with Europe ? 212. How is this territory naturally divided ? Mention each 
portion. 213. How much sea-coast has the United States, and where ? How is 
this, compared with other parts of the world ? 214. What communication has the 
interior with the ocean ? What do the shores of the lakes and rivers form ? What 
advantages does this give ? (Ex.) 



76 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


How is this territory bounded on the East ? How on the West ? What 
lakes and river bound it on the North 1 What line of latitude bounds it 
from the lakes to the Chippewaii Mts. 1 {Beyond the Chippewan Mts. the 
boundary is not finally settled.) What gulf bounds it on the South ? What 
two rivers form a part of the southern boundary West of the Mississippi ? 
What line of latitude is a part of the southern boundary, West of the Chip¬ 
pewan Mts. 1 

What bay is the most northern, on the Atlantic coast of the U. States ? 
What capes has it 1 What bay runs North, into the land, next South of 
Massachusetts Bay ? What sound do you find next West of Narragansett 
Bay ? What two bays, next South of this, receive large rivers ? What 
are the capes of Delaware Bay ? Of Chesapeake Bay ? What sounds 
next South of Chesapeake Bay ? What bays on the coast of the Gulf of 
Mexico ? What bays or inlets do you find on the coast of the Pacific 
Ocean ? 

What are the principal capes of the United States coast, beginning at 
the North, and going round to the mouth of the Mississippi ? Mention the 
islands in the same way, and their situation. 

What great river connects the centre of the United States with the Gulf 
of Mexico ? What lakes and river, on the North, connect it with the Atlan¬ 
tic Ocean ? What addition does this make to the line of land communi¬ 
cating with the ocean ? 

From what mountains do the rivers generally rise which flow into the 
Atlantic Ocean 1 What river empties into the Atlantic, at the West end of 
Long Island ? What six principal rivers empty into the Atlantic, East of 
the Hudson River ? What two large rivers are next South of the Hud¬ 
son ? 

What is the general course of the rivers N-E. of the Susquehannah ? 
What is the general course of the rivers which empty into the Atlantic, 
South of the Susquehannah ? What rivers empty into the Chesapeake 
Bay, and on which side 1 What considerable branch has the Potomac 1 
What rivers empty into Albemarle Sound ? What empty into Pamlico 
Sound ? What rivers are found between these and Savannah River ? De¬ 
scribe their source, and branches. What rivers S. of the Savannah empty 
into the Atlantic 1 What is the principal river of Florida ? 

DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

215. The eastern part of the vast country possessed by 
the United States, extending from the Atlantic Ocean 
several hundred miles West of the Mississippi River, is 
occupied by states settled and governed by white men. The 

B.xr. s. 215. How is the eastern part of the territory of the United States 
occupied ^ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 77 

western part is inhabited chiefly by Indians; but is subject 
to the general government of the United States. 

216. Thirteen of the states were formerly colonies of 
Great Britain, and under the same government; but con¬ 
sidering that government unjust to them, they declared 
themselves independent in 1776. 

The original states were permanently settled or founded at the following 
periods: New Hampshire, 1623 5 Massachusetts, 1620 5 Rhode Island, 
16355 Connecticut, 1635 5 New York, 1614 5 New Jors^y, I 6645 Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 16825 Delaware, 16275 Maryland, 1633 5 Virginia, 1607 5 N. Caro¬ 
lina, 1710 5 S. Carolina, 16695 Georgia, 1733. 

217. They have since bought new territories^ and formed 
new states; and there are now 26 states, united under one 
government. 

218. As the colonies and states of the United States 
^ were formed peacefully, in one country, and by one govern¬ 
ment, we find them more frequently bounded by straight 
lines, than in any other part of the world ; and we cannot 
describe them generally by natural boundaries. 

219. They are divided by their climate and productions 
into two great portions; the temperate or grain states, whose 
chief products are grain and grass, and the warm or cotton 
states, whose chief products are rice and cotton. 

220. The grain states lie North of the line of latitude 
of 36^ degrees. The main body may be enclosed in a par¬ 
allelogram, with a projection to the East. (p. 35, and 
map 57.) 

221. The cotton states lie South of the parallel of latitude 
of 36^; and may also be enclosed in a parallelogram, with a 
projection towards the South. 

222. The territories West of the Mississippi form a third 
parallelogram, between the parallels of 42° and 49°, leaving 
the Indian territory on the South. 


The western part ? 21G. What were these states formerly ? 217. What 

is the number of states now ? 218. What is there singular about their bounda¬ 
ries 1 219. How are the United States divided by their climate and productions 
What are their chief products i 220. Where do the grain states lie ^ What figure 
will enclose them ? 221. Where are the cotton statesWhat figure will enclose 
them ? 222. What figure will enclose the remaining territory of the United 
States ? 



78 


ELEMENTS Of GEOGRAPHY. 


Temperate or Grain States- 

223. The grain states may he subdivided into three por¬ 
tions. (1) The Eastern or New England States form a 
parallelogram East of the Hudson River. (2) The middle 
or Central States extend from the Hudson River and the 
Atlantic Ocean to the lakes, and the head waters of the 
Ohio River. (3) The North-Western States lie on the 
Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and the lakes, 

224. Maryland and Virginia are generally classed with 
the Southern or cotton States; but as they are chiefly grain 
states, they are here classed with others of the same kind. 

225. It will be seen on the map, that with the exception 
of Vermont, the Eastern and Middle States lie on the 
Atlantic Ocean and its waters. Several of the Middle 
States extend across the Apalachian Mountains into the 
basin of the Mississippi River. The North-Western States 
lie entirely in the basins of the Mississippi and the St. 
Lawrence. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Political Map of U, States. — What six states lie E. of the Hudson 
River? What are they called ? (See H 223.) What six states and two 
territories lie on the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the lakes, North of latitude 
36^° ? What are they called ? What six states lie between the North- 
Western States, and the Atlantic <and Eastern States ? What are they 
called ? Are Maryland and Virginia cotton states ? (IT 224.) Give the 
boundary of each state as follows : — 

How is Maine bounded on the N., E., S., and W. ? (1) (See note ^ contain¬ 
ing a sketch of some of the more difficult boundaries, with blanks for the 
names, which the pupil should fill up from the map.) 

How is New Hampshire bounded?* (2) Vermont? Massachusetts? 

G. S. 223. How may the grain states be subdivided ? Where do the Eastern 
States lie ? What do they fbrm ? Where are the Middle or Central States ? 
The North-Western.^ 224, What can you say of Maryland and Virginia? 
225. Do all the Eastern and Middle States lie on the Atlantic ? How far do some of 
the Middle States extend ? In what basins do the North-Western States lie ? (Ex.) 

* By the late treaty between the Hnited States and Great Britain, Maine is 
bounded on the E. by the St. Croix Biver, and a line running from its head, North, 
to the St. Johns River ; on the N. by the St. Johns River ; and on the N-W. by a 
line from L. Pohenagamock to the highlands from w'hich the St. Johns rises, and 
by those highlands. 

(1) Maine is bounded N. by-; E. by-; S. by the-Ocean ; W. by-; 

and N-W. by the highlands and a line from the-to Lake-. (2) New 

Hampshire is bounded N. by-; E. by the state of -and the-Ocean j 

B, by —-; and W. by-River, which separates it from-. 













































80 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


How is R)iode Island bounded on the N. and E. ? On the S. and W. (3) 
What are the boundaries of Connecticut, on the N., E., S., and W. 1 New 
York ? New Jersey ? Pennsylvania ? Delaware ? (4) Maryland ? (6) 
Virginia ? (6) 

W^hat river separates iCentucky from the three states north of it? What 
river separates Missouri from the states E. of it ? 

How is Kentucky bounded on the N., E., S., and W. ? Ohio ? Indiana ? 
Illinois? Missouri? Michigan? Wisconsin Territory ? Iowa Territory ? 

y Warm or Cotton States. 

* 226. 7’Ae warm states, which produce rice and cotton, and 
in some parts even the sugar-cane, lie south of the parallel 
of latitude of 36^ degrees, as already described, (^j 221) 

227. 'J'hc cotton states may he divided into the Southern 
States, lying on the Atlantic Ocean, and the South-Western 
States, lying on the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi 
River. 

228. Beyond the boundaries of Arkansas and Missouri, 
and between the Red and the Platte Rivers, is the Territory 
secured to the Indians who have been removed from the 
states. 

229. The remainder of the Territory West of the Mis¬ 
sissippi forms the third parallelogram of the United States, 
divided into territories still occupied by the Indians. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

What southern states and territory lie on the Atlantic Ocean ? What 
states lie on the Gulf of Mexico ? What others N. of them, on the Mis¬ 
sissippi River ? ~ 

How is N. Carolina bounded? What line of latitude on the N. separates 
itfrom V’^irginia? How is Tennessee bounded ? Arkansas? S. Carolina? 
What river separates it from Georgia ? How is Georgia bounded ? Ala¬ 
bama ? (T[ 227.) Louisiana? W'hich of these states may be called South¬ 
ern States ? Which South-Western States ? 

o. s. 226. Where do the cotton states lie ? 227. How may they be divided ? 
228. Where is the territory secured to the Indians that have removed from the 
United States } 229. What figure will enclose the remaining territories ? By 
whom are they occupied i (Ex.) 

(3) Rliode Island is bounded N and E. by-; S. by-Ocean ; and W. by 

-. (4) Delaware is bounded N. by-; E. by-River and Bay, which 

separate it from-; S. and W. by-. (.5) Maryland is bounded N. by-; 

E. by the state of-and -Ocean ; S-W. by-River, which separates it 

from-. (6) Virginia is bounded on the N. by-and-; on the E. by 

the-Bay and Ocean ; on the N-E. by-River, which separates it from-; 

on the S. by the line of 361° N. latitude, which separates it from-; on the W. 

by-; and on the N-W. by the River-, which separates it from the state 

of-. 




government of the united states. 


81 


Political Map of U. States. — Where is the territory secured to the In¬ 
dians who have left the settled States? (11 228.) IIow is that territory 
bounded ? What figure will enclose the remaining territory of the United 
States ? (IT 229.) Between what parallels of latitude does this region lie ? 
What are its eastern and western boundaries ? Into what territories is it 
divided ? How are they bounded ? 

GOVERNMENT OP THE UNITED STATES. 

230. The United States form a federal republic. (^{194.) 
It consists of a number of distinct states, united under one 
general government, whose seat or capital is at Washington. 

(H.) 231. In every government there are three distinct powers. 
(1.) The power of making laws, or the legislative,, which sometimes 
belongs to one man, and sometimes to a number of men called a legis¬ 
lature. (2.) That of administering justice, or the judicial power, usually 
in the hands o?judges. (3.) The power of executing the laws, or the 
executive, which generally belongs to the chief king, duke, president, 
or other supreme head of the government. 

The ruler of a country is usually assisted in his duties by a number 
of persons chosen by himself, called ministers, councillors, or secre¬ 
taries. As he also consults with them on affairs of importance, 
they are called his cabinet, or council. The prime minister in Turkey 
and Persia is called the vizier, and tlie cabinet is called the divan. 

232. The general government of the United States has the power 
of settling all disputes between the states, and governing ell the 
territories; of making war and peace with foreign countries; and of 
raising taxes, and collecting duties on imported goods in each state, 
to pay the expenses of the government. 

A TAX is money paid to a government. Duties are taxes paid on import¬ 
ed goods, to support government. 

233. The laics are made by the Congress, which consists of a House 
of Representatives, chosen every two years by the people of each 
state, according to its population; and of a Senate, of two members 
from each state, chosen for six years. 

234. The laws are executed by the President, who is chosen every 
four years by electors appointed by the respective states. He is 
assisted by the Secretaries of State, of the Treasury, of War, »nd of 
the Navy, the Attorney-General, and the Postmaster-General; all of 
whom united form the Cabinet. The President, with the approbation 
of the Senate, appoints the inferior officers of government, and those 
of the army and navy. 


Gra Urn Sa 230. What do the United States form? Of what does it consist? 
[231. What powers has every government ? What is the legislative power ? The 
judicial? The executive? How is the ruler of a country assisted ? 332. What 
power has the government of the United States ? 233. Who make the laws of 
the United States ? 234. By w'hom are the laws executed ? Who assist the presi¬ 
dent ? What officers does the president of the United States appoint ? 



82 


ELEMENTS OF LEOuRAPHY. 


235. The Judges of the United States arc appointed by the President 
and Senate, for life; and cannot be removed except by a public im¬ 
peachment and trial for ill conduct. Their duty is to decide causes 
under the constitution and laws of the United States. 

236. The President of the United States and his secretaries reside at 
Washington, in the District of Columbia, which belongs to the gen¬ 
eral government, and Congress assemble tlicre every year to iiiako 
laws. Hence Washington is called the seat of government or capital. 

237. The individual states of the American Union are 
republics, governed by assemblies, and a governor, all 
chosen by the people for a limited time. 

There are usually two houses of representatives, which are united with 
the governor in making laws. The executive power is vested in the gov¬ 
ernor and his subordinate officers; and the judicial power in judges, ap¬ 
pointed in different ways, but usually for life. 

238. Each State has also its own capital or seat of gov¬ 
ernment, and is divided into counties and towns, each with 
its government and judges, subject to the state government. 

A town which is governed by a mayor and aldermen is called a city, 
though it may be small. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Map of the Eastern States. — What smaller divisions do you find in 
each state ? What is the capital of Maine ? ( The names qf the capitals 

are in capital letters, with a dash under them.) Is it on the ocean, 
or in the interior ? In what part of the state is it — in the eastern, western, 
northern, southern, or central part 1 What is the capital of New Hamp¬ 
shire ? Where, and in what part of the state is it'? Mention in the same 
way the capital of Vermont. Of Massachusetts. (Rhode Island and Con¬ 
necticut have two capitals each.) What arc the two capitals of Rhode 
Island ? Of Connecticut ? 

Map of N. Division of U. States .— What is tlie capital or seat of gov¬ 
ernment of New York, and where ? Where is New York, its chief city ? 
What is the capital of Pennsylvania ? Where is its chief city, Philadel¬ 
phia? What is the capital of Maryland ? Where is Baltimore, its chief 
city ? Mention the capitals, and their situation, of each of the Middle 
States. Of the North-Western States. Where is Cincinnati, the chief 
city of Ohio ? Where is St. Louis, the chief city of Missouri ? 

Map of S. Division of U. States. — What is the capital eff N. Carolina, 
and in what part of the state is it ? What is that of S. Carolina ? Of 


233. Who appoint the judges of the United States ? What is their duty ? 
236. Where does the president reside ? Where is Washington f What is it 
called?] 237. What is the government of the individual states.? 238. How is 
each state divided ? 




SOUTH AMERICA. 


83 


Georgia 1 Of Alabama ? Wliere are Charleston, Savannah, and Mobile, 
the chief cities of these states ? What is the capital of Mississippi 1 Of 
Louisiana ? Of Tennessee ? Of Arkansas 1 

j SOUTH AMERICA. 

, 239. South America is the smallest of the grand divis¬ 
ions except Europe and Oceanica, and is one of the most 
thinly inhabited. 

240. The greater part of South Amer¬ 
ica may be enclosed in a triangle, as in the 
map 58; and it forms a body of land, al¬ 
most without members or peninsulas. 

241. It has few bays or harbors on its 
coast, and less sea-coast and commerccy 
in proportion to its size, than any part of 
the world, except Africa. Its numerous 
and great rivers are little known or navi¬ 
gated. 

(.58) South America. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of S. AmoHca. — How is S. America bounded on the N. ? 
How on the JN-E. and S-E. ? What ocean does it reach on the S. ? What 
bounds it on the W. ? Repeat the boundaries of S. America in order, 
N., N-E., S-E., S., and W. What figure will embrace the greater part 
of S. America ? Draw a triangle like that in the figure, and then draw the 
coast. Has it any large gulfs or bays ? Has it any great peninsulas ? Any 
long rivers ? 

What is the most northern cape of S. America ? The most eastern 7 
The most western ? The most southern ? ( The extreme point of the main 

land of S. America is Cape Forward ; hut Cape Horn, on Hermit Island, is 
the most southern point of land connected loith it.) What are the principal 
capes on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean ? What on the Pacific Ocean ? 

What islands are there on the northern coast of S. America 7 What 
islands lie N. of the Orinoco River ? What one at the mouth of the Ama¬ 
zon 7 What islands off the coast of Brazil 7 On what island is Cape 
Horn 7 What islands E. of it 7 ( The Falkland Islands are occupied by 

British colonists.) What islands are there on the western coast 7 



S. A., 239. What can you say of S. America ? 240. How may the greater 
part of S. America be enclosed ? Has it any peninsulas ? 241. What can you 
say of its coast and commerce ? What of its rivers ? (Ev.) 





84 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


NATURAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

242. South America is naturally divided, by the moun¬ 
tain chain of the Andes, into two parts — the western 
declivity or slope, towards the Pacific Ocean, which is 
narrow and long, and the eastern declivity, which forms the 
greater part. 

243. It was formerly inhabited only by Indians. But 
most of them were conquered by Spaniards and Portu¬ 
guese, who subdued the most important countries of South 
America, and established colonies, all of which have be¬ 
come independent states. 

244. On the Andes, and their western declivity, the 
Spaniards have formed the republics of Chili, Bolivia, Peru, 
Ecuador, and New Granada. On the northern coast, they 
have formed that of Venezuela ; and on the southern coast, 
those of La Plata and Monte Video, or Uraguay. 

245. The Portuguese formed the Empire of Brazil, 
which occupies the eastern and central regions. 

246. The Dutch, French, and English formed distinct 
colonies, in a small country called Guiana, on the north¬ 
eastern coast, which are still governed by the mother 
countries. 

247. The Indians that arc unconquered still occupy the 
southern extremity, which is called Patagonia; Araucania, 
which borders on Chili; and a small country called Para¬ 
guay, on the Paraguay River. Indians are also the only 
inhabitants of the interior of Brazil, formerly called 
Amazonia. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of S. America. — What great chain of mountains is there in 
S. America? How does it divide S. America? (IT 242.) Are there any 
large rivers on the western declivity of the Andes ? What great river on 

Kr.P.I>. 242. How is S. America divided ? What can you say of the western 
declivity ? What of the eastern ? 243. By whom was S. America formerly inhab¬ 
ited ? Who subdued the most important countries of S. America ? What can 
you say of the colonies established here ? 244. What republics have the Span¬ 
iards formed on the Andes and the western declivity ? What on the northern 
coast ? On the southern ? 245. What empire have the Portuguese formed, and 
where f 246. Where is Guiana, and how is it divided and governed ? 247. What 
countries are possessed by the unconquered Indians ? Who inhabit the inte¬ 
rior ? (Ex.) 



EUROPE. 85 

the eastern declivity, in the middle of S. America ? What are on the N. 7 
What on the S. 7 

Political Map of S. America. — What country occupies the basin of the 
River Amazon 7 What countries are there in the basin of the La Plata 
River 7 What in the basin of the Orinoco River 7 What states lie on the 
Andes, and their western declivity 7 

How is Brazil bounded 7 What is its capital 7 How is La Plata bound¬ 
ed 7 Paraguay 7 Uraguay, or Monte Video 7 What is the capital of each 
of these states 7 How is Patagonia bounded 7 Has it any towns 7 How 
is Chili bounded 7 Bolivia 7 Peru 7 Ecuador 7 What is the capital of 
each 7 What are the boundaries of New Granada 7 Of Venezuela 7 What 
are their capitals 7 How is Guiana bounded 7 What are the chief towns 
of each division 7 

(£1.) What are nearly the latitudes of the northern and middle countries 
of S. America 7 What places do you find in latitude 10° N. 7 What places 
under the equator 7 What places do you find 12° S. of the equator 7 What 
islands are in about 20° S. latitude 7 What islands in the Pacific are in the 
same latitude 7 What islands and countries are in 20° N. latitude 7 What 
places lie in 34° or 35° S. latitude 7 What is the latitude of Cape Horn 7 
vVhat other land can you find in the same latitude 7 

Moral and Political Chart of the World. — What countries of N. Amer¬ 
ica have the same latitude with the southern countries of S. America 7 

Between what longitudes does S. America lie 7 What parts of N. Amer¬ 
ica are in the same longitude with Brazil 7 What with Peru 7 What 
countries of S. America have noon at the same time with Philadelphia 7 
What is the difference of time between Philadelphia and the eastern parts 
of Brazil 7 What is the difference of time between Peru and London 7 

EUROPE. 

. Europe is a peninsula projecting from the body of 
the eastern continent towards the west, between the North¬ 
ern Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. It is the smallest 
of the grand divisions, except Oceanica. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of Europe. — How is Europe bounded on the N. 7 What 
mountains, river, and sea bound it on the E. 7 What mountains, and what 
great seas, on the S. 7 Mention all the seas and straits on the S., from the 
Black Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. What ocean bounds Europe on the W. 7 
Repeat the boundaries of Europe in order, on the N., E., S., and W. On 
how many sides is it surrounded by water 7 

What is the most southern cape of Europe 7 Wh^t is the most western 
cape (in Portugal?) What is the most northern cape 7 ( The most northern 

cape of Europe is the North Cape, on Mageroe Island ; but the most northern 
point of the main land is Nord Kyn, a cape E. of this, in Lapland.) 



E. 248. What is Europe, and what is its size? (Ex.) 




S6 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAFrlY- 


FORM AND COAST. 



249. Europe is indented and divided, in every direction, 
by branches of the ocean. 

Its main body may be enclosed in a triangle, as in figure 
59, which embraces two thirds of its surface. The parts 
not enclosed in this triangle are chiefly peninsulas, which 
cover half as much surface as the main body, besides nu¬ 
merous islands, some of which are large. 

This triangle is formed by a line drawn from the Bay of Biscay (BB) to 
the Caspian Sea, (CS) and two lines from the ends of this, uniting in the 
Gulf of Kara, (GK) at the north-eastern corner of Europe. 

250. In this way, Europe has more sea-coast, in propor¬ 
tion to its extent, than any other division of the continents; 
and almost every country is open to commerce with ^he 
ocean. 


r. C. 249. How is Europe indented and divided? What figure will enclose 
the greater part of Europe ? How must it be drawn ? How much of it will this 
contain ? 250, What can you say of the sea-coast of Europe, and of its com¬ 
merce ? (Ex.) 





















NATURAL AND POLITJCAL DIVISIONS. 


87 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of Europe. — What seas are there in the N. of Europe ? 
What branches has the Baltic .Sea ? What channels are there around the 
British Isles ? What bay on the western coast of Europe ? What branch¬ 
es has the Mediterranean Sea ? Is Europe much divided by these seas ? 
What figure will enclose the main body of Europe 1 (II 219.) What do you 
find outside of this triangle ? Does the sea-coast of Europe appear to be 
extensive ? 

What mountains bound Europe on the E. ? What on the S-E. ? What 
mountains do you find in the centre of Europe ? [The Alps are the highest 
moimtains of Europe.) Do you find any mountains between the Carpathian 
and the Ural Mountains ? 


NATURAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

251. The eastern portion of the triangle described, forms 
an extensive tract, nearly level, which is occupied by the 
Russian Empire, extending from the Northern Ocean to 
the Black Sea. 

252. The centre of Europe is covered with mountains 
and highlands, divided into a number of table lands, valleys, 
and basins. These are occupied by the numerous states of 
Germany, and the federal republic of Switzerland. 

253. Several of the northern states of Germany are uni¬ 
ted in the Kingdom of Tritssia, and several, on the south¬ 
east, in the Empire of Austria. 

254. On the western declivity of the highlands which 
occupy the centre of Europe, we find the kingdoms of 
France, Belgium, and Holland. 

255. On the South are three peninsulas, the Grecian, 
Italian, and Spanish. The Grecian peninsula is occupied 
by the Kingdom of Greece and the Empire of Turkey. 
The Italian peninsula is divided into the Italian States. 
'The Spanish peninsula is divided into the kingdoms of 
Spain and Portugal. 

The Ionian Isles, on the coast of Greece, form a republic, 
with a British governor. 


W. P. D. 251. What empire is there in the eastern portion of the triangle ? 
What can you say of this tract of country ^ 252. What is said of Central Europe ? 
What states and republic occupy it? 253. What kingdom and empire in the 
North and in the South-East ? 254. What kingdoms are on the western or At¬ 
lantic declivity of the centre of Europe ? 255. What three peninsulas are there 
in the S. of Europe, and how are they divided ? What are the Ionian Isles ■* 



88 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


256. In the northern part of Europe we find the low, 
sandy peninsula which forms the principal part of the King¬ 
dom of Denmark, and the mountainous peninsula of Scan¬ 
dinavia, embracing the kingdoms ^f Sweden and Norway. 

257. On the north-western coast of Europe are the islands 
which form the kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland^ the 
land of our forefathers, and the residence of the only nation 
who speak the same language with ourselves. 

This kingdom has colonies and possessions in all parts of 
the world, and hence it is often called the British Empire. 



EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 


Physical Map of Europe. — What three peninsulas are there in the S. of 
Europe ? Which of these is nearly square 1 Which resembles a boot in 
shape ? Which is nearly triangular ? How is the Grecian peninsula occu¬ 
pied? (H 255.) The Italian? The Spanish? What mountains do you find 
in the Spanish peninsula? What mountains in Italy ? What in the Gre¬ 
cian peninsula ? What two peninsulas are formed by the Baltic Sea ? 
What states occupy them ? 256.) 

What large islands lie N. of France ? What kingdom do they form? 
What are its three great divisions ? What large island is there N-W. of 
the British Isles ? What groups of small islands between Iceland and 
the British Isles ? (Iceland and the Faroe Isles belong to Denmark, and the 
Shetland Isles to Great Britain.) What islands are there near Scotland 
on the N. and W. ? What islands in the Irish Channel ? What in the 
British Channel ? What one in the North Sea? (All these small islands 
belong to Great Britain.) 

What islands are there on the eastern coast of Spain ? What islands W. 
and S-W. of Italy ? ( Corsica belongs to France, and Malta to Great 

Britain.) What islands on the western coast of Greece? What are the 
principal islands in the iEgean Sea, or Grecian Archipelago ? Where is 
Candia ? 

In how many directions do the rivers flow from the central mountains of 
Europe ? What great river flows to the E. into the Black Sea ? What 
great river flows to the N-W. into the North Sea ? What one into the 
Mediterranean ? What rivers flow down the declivity of France, into the 
Atlantic Ocean ? What rivers, beside the Danube, empty into the Black 
Sea ? What great river passes from the centre of Russia into the Caspian 
Sea ? What rivers empty into the Northern Ocean from Europe ? What 
into the Baltic Sea? What into the North Sea? What rivers are there in 
Sweden and Norway ? In Great Britain ? In Spain ? In Italy ? In 
Turkey ? 


256. What peninsula and kingdom in the northern part of Europe ? 5i57. What 
islands and kingdom on the N-W. coast of Europe ? What other name is given 
to this kingdom, and why ? (Ex.) 



ASIA. 


89 


What lakes are there in Russia ? What in Sweden ? What in Switzer¬ 
land ? ( The Lake of Constance is formed by the River Rhine, and the Lake 
of Geneva by the Rhone.) 

Political Map of Europe. — What are the five countries of Europe lying 
North of 55° latitude ? What are the boundaries of each ? Wliat are the 
middle countries between 55° and 45° 1 What are the boundaries of each ? 
What are the four South of 45°, and their boundaries ? What are the cap¬ 
itals of the northern countries and Poland ? Of the middle countries ? Of 
the'southern 1 

(Ila) Between what latitudes and longitudes is Europe ? What coun¬ 
tries or Europe are in the latitude of Kamschatka, Labrador, and Hudson's 
Bay, or N. of 50° N. latitude ? What in the latitude of Canada, 45° to 50° 
^ N. ? What in the latitude of the Northern United States, or 40° to 45° N. ? 
What are in the latitude of Maryland, Virginia, and the adjoining states, or 
36° to 40° N. ? Mention three capital cities, nearly in the latitude of the 
Shetland Isles and Greenland, or latitude 60°. What four others nearly in 
that of London, and Cape Charles, in Labrador, or about latitude 51^° ? 
What capitals between 45° and 50° of N. latitude ? What places in the 
latitude of Halifax, or 44° to 45° ? Of Boston, about 42A° ? \^at capitals 
nearly in the latitude of New York and Madrid, or 40° to 41° ? What 
in that of Washington, or about 39° ? Trace the line of 36° N. latitude 
(which is nearly that of Raleigh, North Carolina) to Asia, and mention the 
places and coasts on or near it. 

Find the longitude of London — Petersburg — Paris — Rome — Constan¬ 
tinople. What is the difference of time between London and Philadelphia ? 
Boston ? New York ? What between Petersburg and New Orleans ? Vi¬ 
enna and Washington ? Constantinople and Baltimore ? 

ASIA. 

258. Asia is the largest of the grand divisions of the 
world. It appears to have been the cradle of the human 
race, and now contains more than half the population of 
the globe. 

259. Its form has been compared to that of a broad 
curtain, hanging from the coast of the Arctic Ocean. It is 
so massive, that Me greater part of it may be included in a 
figure of four sides; as in figure 60. 

This figure is formed by two lines drawn from the Isthmus of Suez (S.) 
to the Gulf of Kara, (K.,) and from the Island of Hainan, (H.,) in the 
Pacific, to Cape Schelagskoi, (C. S.,) on the Arctic Ocean; and two others 
from W. to E,, uniting their extremities. 

260. The peninsulas of Asia form more than one third 
of its surface; and, from the extent of their coasts, have 
long been the chief seat of commerce. But the greater 


Jk. 258. What can you say of Asia ? 259. What of its form ? How may the 
greater part of it be enclosed t 260. What is said of the peninsulas of Asia ? 



90 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


part of Asia cannot be reached by ships from the ocean; 
and even the coast on the North is so much obstructed by 
ice, that it has no navigation. 



(GO) Asia 

261. Hence Asia has little useful sea-coast in proportion 
to its extent; and is far behind Europe and N. America in 
commerce. 

262. A range of table lands passes through the middle 
of Asia, from East to West, which has declivities towards 
the seas around it. 


EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Physical Map of Asia, on the North, East, South, and West. What 
figure will enclose the main body of Asia ? Draw a figure like that here 
given, and the peninsulas around it. 

How is Asia bounded on the N., E., and S. ? What mountains, and river, 
and four seas, bound Asia on the W. 1 What gulf lies E. of Arabia ? 
What sea lies S. of Arabia ? What straits connect it with the Red Sea 
and the Persian Gulf ? What bay E. of Hindoostan ? Through what straits 
can you pass to the E. of Chin-India ? What seas do you find there 1 
What gulfs in the China Sea ? What seas lie N. of this, on the eastern 
coast of Asia ? What gulfs N. of Siberia? 


What of the greater part of Asia and its northern coast ? 261. What propor¬ 
tion of sea-coast has it ? How does it compare with Europe and America in 
commerce ? 262. What range of table lands has Asia? (Ex.) 

























ASIA. 


91 


What peninsulas are formed by these seas and gulfs, on the eastern coast ? 
What on the S. ? What on tlie W. ? What are the most southern capes 
of Asia ? Wliat capes are there on the eastern coast, beginning at the S. ? 
WJiat on the northern coast ? 

How large a part of Asia consists of peninsulas ? (IT 260.) Has Asia 
much sea-coast in proportion to its size ? 

What mountains are there in the northern part of Asia ? What in the 
southern ? What table lands lie between them ? In what directions do 
the rivers flow from these table lands ? How many declivities must there 
be descending from these table lands ? 

What three great rivers flow from the central table land through Siberia ? 
What three great rivers are there on the eastern declivity of the table land ? 
What rivers flow from it, to the South, through Chin-lndia ? What through 
Hindoostan ? What rivers are there on the western declivity of the cen¬ 
tral table land 1 

What inland seas are there in the western part of Asia ? What lakes 1 
What large lake N. of the table land, and what river flows from it ? 

^ POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

263. The central table land is usually called Chinese 
Tartary; and China and Mandshuria lie on its eastern 
declivity. These countries form the Chinese Empire. 

264. The irestern table land is divided into the kingdoms 
of Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan. North of these, 
is the western declivity of the central table land, called In¬ 
dependent Tartary, occupied by several independent tribes 
and states. 

265. The northern declivity of Asia is occupied by the 
vast plains of Siberia, with the peninsula of Kamschatka, 
which form a part of the Russian Empire,' or Russia in 
Asia. 

266. The peninsula of Asia Minor projects towards the 
West, forming the Asiatic portion of the Turkish Empire. 
The peninsulas of Arabia, Hindoostan , and of Chin-lndia, 
(or India beyond the Ganges,) extend towards the South. 
They are divided among a number of distinct states. 


F. Z>. 263. What is tlie central table land of Asia usually called ? Where 
do the countries lie that form the Chinese Empire 1 What are they ? 264. Into 
what kingdoms is the western table land divided.? What declivity lies north 
of Persia ? 265. How is the northern declivity of Asia occupied ? To what em¬ 
pire does it belong.? 266. What peninsula of Asia lies on the West,and to what 
empire does it belong.? What peninsulas extend toward the south.? How are 
they divided 1 



92 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


267. Oji the eastern coast, the islands of Jesso, Niplion, 
and Kiusiu, are united in the Empire of Japan. 

EXERCISES ON THE BIAPS. 

Political Map of Asia. —What parts of Asia does the empire of China 
occupy ? Where are the kingdoms of Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochis- 
tan ? What states and tribes are found on tlie declivity towards the Cas¬ 
pian Sea ? To what empire does the northern declivity of Asia belong 1 
What peninsula of Asia lies on the W. ? To what empire does it belong ? 
What are the three southern peninsulas ? How are they divided ? 

What islands are there on the eastern coast ? Which are the largest ? 
Which three form a distinct empire ? (IT 267.) What group of islands on 
the S. E. ? What large island S. of Hindoostan ? What groups of islands 
in this part of the Indian Ocean ? 

How is Siberia bounded ? What are its chief towns 1 How is Inde¬ 
pendent Tartary bounded ? Chinese Tartary ? What states and towns 
do you find in each ? Describe the boundaries and capital of China. Of 
Japan. Of Anam. Of Siam. Of Burmah. Of Hindoostan. Of Beloo- 
chistan. Of Afghanistan. Of Persia. Of Arabia. Of Turkey. 

(IXa) Between what latitudes does Asia lie, and in what zones ? What 
countries of Asia are in the same latitude with British America, or !N. of 
latitude 45° JV. ? What in the latitude of the Northern United States, or 
from 40° to 45° ? What in that of the Central and Southern States, or from 
30° to 40° N. ? In that of Florida and the Bahama Islands, from 20° to 30° ? 
In that of the W. Indies, Mexico, and Central America, from 10° to 20° ? 

What places in Siberia are nearly iji the latitude of St. Petersburg ? 
What towns and mountains are nearly in latitude 61.^° N., or in that of Lon¬ 
don ? What important places are from 39° to 41°, or nearly in the latitude 
of Madrid, Naples, and New York ? What remarkable places do you find in 
latitude 30° to 33°, or that of New Orleans, Natchez, and Savannah, in the 
United States ? Near What remarkable places does the Tropic of Cancer 
pass ? Does the equator cross any part of Asia ? 

Between what longitudes does Asia lie ? What is the difference of time 
between Turkey and Japan ? What between Turkey and London ? Tur¬ 
key and Philadelphia ? China and Philadelphia ? 


AFRICA. 

268. Africa is a peninsula projecting from Asia, and is 
the second grand division of the world in size. 

269. It is a body without members; and if we draw 
around it an oval figure, resembling an egg in shape, we shall 
include nearly all its projections, and find no considerable 
indentations on the sea, except the Gulf of Guinea. 


267. What islands and empire on the eastern coast ^ (Ex.) A., 268. What is 

Africa? What is iw comparative size ? 269. W1 't 6gure will enclose it ? 



AFRICA. 


93 


270. Hence Africa -has 
less sea-coast and commerce, 
in proportion to its size, than 
any other portion of the 
world. 

It is the least knoion of 
all the grand divisions of 
the continents, in conse¬ 
quence of this limited com¬ 
merce, and also of its ex¬ 
tensive deserts and unheal¬ 
thy air, which render it 
dangerous to travel through 
it. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS, 

Physical Map of Africa. — What 
is Africa, and what is its compar¬ 
ative size 1 {IF 268.) How is it bounded ? What isthmus connects Africa 
with Asia ? What sea and straits separate it from Asia ? What channel from 
Madagascar ? What gulf do you find on the western coast ? What on the 
northern coast 1 Has Africa any peninsulas ? 

What figure will enclose Africa? (H 269.) Draw the shape of an egg, 
and then draw the coast within and without it, as in figure 61. What pro¬ 
portion of sea-coast has Africa? (H 270.) Js it well known? 

Wliat are the most eastern and western capes ? What are the most 
northern and southern ? ( The most northern point of Africa is Cape Blanco, 
opposite the Island of Sicily. The most southern is Cape Aguillas ; but the 
Cape of Good Hope is usually referred to, as being the most important point.) 
What capes are there on the western coast above C. Palmas ? What capes 
on the coast of Guinea ? What capes between this and the C. of Good 
Hope ? What capes on the eastern coast ? 

What great river do you find in the north-eastern part of Africa ? What 
lake in the centre ? What rivers in the middle regions, on the W. ? What 
in Southern Africa on the western coast ? On the eastern ? 

NATURAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

271. Africa appears to consist of two great portions, one 
projecting towards the W. and the other towards the S. 
They may he divided by a line drawn from the Straits of 
Babelmandel to the north-east corner of the Gulf of Guinea. 


270. What can you say of the sea-coast of Africa ? Is it well known i Why 
not.> (Ex.) N, P, I>a 271. Of wh^ two great portions does Africa consist ? 
How may they be divided ? ^ 









ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


94 

272. The southern portion of Africa, lying S. of this line, 
is occupied, in the centre, by an unknown, elevated region. 
The English colony of the Cape of Good Hope is on its 
southern coast. The kingdoms of Southern or Lower 
Guinea lie on the loestcrn coast; and those of Caffraria, 
Mozambi(pie, Zanguebar, and several others, (which are all 
imperfectly known,) on the eastern coast. 



( 62 ) Map of Africa. 


273. The northern portion of Africa may be divided into 
the Middle Regions, extending from the line above described 
271) to the Tropic of Cancer, and Northern Africa, 
North of the Tropic. 

2.74. The centre of the Middle Regions of Africa is 


272. How is the southern portion of Africa occupied ? What colony on the 
southern coast ? What kingdoms on the western coast ? What on the eastern ? 
273. How may the northern portion be divided ? 274. How is the centre of t(ie 
Middle Regions occupied ? 












































OCEANICA. 95 

occupied by the Negro kingdoms of Soudan or Nigritia, and 
the Great Desert of Sahara. 

275. On the eastern coast are Nubia and Abyssinia; 
and on the loestern, Senegambia, and the various kingdoms 
of Northern Guinea, with the little colonies of Liberia and 
Sierra Leone, for emancipated Africans. 

276. Northern Africa is occupied by the Barbary States 
— Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli — on the West, 
and Egypt on the East. 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Political Map of S. America and Africa. — How will Africa be divided 
by a line from Cape Guardafui to the Gulf of Guinea ? (IT 271.) What can 
you say of the country in the southern division of Africa ? How may the 
northern portion be divided ? 273.) What countries occupy the middle 

regions ? What are there on the eastern and western coasts of those re¬ 
gions ? What countries in Northern Africa ? Describe the boundaries of 
each of these countries, beginning at the South. 

What three groups of islands do you find N. of C. Blanco ? What clus¬ 
ter off C. Verd ? What three islands S. from C. Palmas ? What in the 
Gulf of Guinea ? What large one on the eastern coast ? What two small 
ones East of this ? What North of it ? What in the channel of Mozam¬ 
bique ? What Arabian island off C. Guardafui ? 

(II.) Between what latitudes do the northern portions of Africa lie ? 
Where does the equator pass ? In what zone does the middle portion, or 
larger part of Africa lie 7 Between what latitudes does Southern Africa 
(IT 271) lie ? What parts of the United States are in the latitude of Bar¬ 
bary ? What places in Africa and the neighboring portions of Asia are in 
the latitude of N. Carolina ? Of Charleston ? New Orleans ? Mexico ? 
What parts of Africa in the latitude of the West Indies ? Of Venezuela ? 
Peru? Chili? Of Lima? Of Rio Janeiro? Of Valparaiso? What 
is the longitude of St. Helena from London ? Of Egypt ? What is the 
difference of time between Philadelphia and Cape Town. (See Chart.) 

OCEANICA. 

""^77. OcEANicA embraces the continental island of New 
Holland, with countless small islands. 

278. They are formed into three principal divisions. 
The islands lying nearest to Asia, extending to 10° S. 
latitude, and 130° E. longitude, are called the Indian Ai~ 
chipelagOf or Malaysia. New Holland and the adjacent 

275. What countries on the eastern coast of this division ? What on the west¬ 
ern i What colonies here ? 276. How is Northern Africa occupied ? (Ex.) 

O. 277* What does Oceanica embrace ? 278. What are the principal divisions f 
What islands are called Malaysia I What form Australia ’ 

5 





96 


ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 


islands, together with New Zealand and the New Hebrides, 
form the great division of Australia. The remaining isl¬ 
ands, E. of the Philippine Islands and New Zealand, are 
classed together under the name of Polynesia. 

The islands of Polynesia are scattered over the ocean, like the stars in 
the sky *, some single, and some in clusters and groups. A part of them 
are low islands, composed chiefly of coral rock, and a port of them are 
high islands, generally of volcanic rocks; as represented fig. ()3 and 64. 



(63) Coral Island. 


(64) //%/i Island. 


279. New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, and New Zea¬ 
land, are j^^^^scssed and colonized, by (Jrcai llritain; Java, 
and the Spice Islands or Moluccas, % Holland; and tlie 
Philippine Islands hy Spain. Tlie rest, with tlie exception 
of settlements on the coast, are occupied by native tribes. 

The two groups of the .Sandwich and Society Islands, and many natives 
of New Zealand, and other islands, have received the Christian religion, and 
are considerably advanced in civilization. 


r.XERCISES ON TUE MAP. 

Map of Oceanica. — What does Oceanica embrace 1 (1i 277.) How are 
these islands divided ? Where are the largest irdunds of Oceanica '! What 
are their names ? What are the chief groups of small islands ? Which are 
N. of the equator? Which are .S. of the equator? 

Note. Those who study only thefrst course should now pass on to the articles 
in large type, in the description of countries, beginning at page 15.5. 


Wliat does Polynesia include ? 279. By whom are these islands possessed ? 

Which of them belong to Great Britain ? To Holland.^ To Spain ? To native 
tribes? What can you say of the Sandwich and Society Islands? (Ex.) 

















SURFACE OF THE LAND. 


97 


II.* PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


SURFACE OF THE LAND. 


ELEVATIONS AND DEPRESSIONS. 

280. 'J'/ie land rises above the water, in some parts a few inches, in 
others, several thousand feet; and this height is generally measured 
from the level of the sea. 

281. Those parts of the earth which are not more than 500 or 600 
feet above the level of the sea, are called, by geographers, lowlands. 
Those which liave more than this elevation, are sensibly cooler than 
low countries, and are called highlands. 

282. Highlands and lowlands are the tico great divisions of the sur¬ 
face of the earth ; and it is important to knoxo the elevation of a country., 
as well as its latitude, in order to judge correctly of its climate and 
productions. 

Thus the sea-coast of the Southern United States, which is very little 
elevated above the level of the ocean, is excessively hot in summer; while 
the high country among the mountains, in the same latitude, (such as the 
great valley of Virginia,) is cool and pleasant. The highest peaks in the 
southern part of Spain are covered with snow, while oranges are growing 
on the low grounds near them. 

283. The surface or face of a, country, both in the highlands and 
lowlands, is sometimes level, and sometimes uneven. When it is 
level, it is called a, plain. When it is uneven, like the sea covered 
with waves, it is called a leaving or undulating country, and differs 
little from a plain. 

In the Western United States there is a great deal of waving land, which 
is there called a I'olling country. 

284. When the elevations of the surface are considerable, a country 
is called hilly or mountainous. If it is covered with mountains, it is 
a mountain land. 

285. The face of a country, connected with its elevation, has great 
influence on its climate and productions, and even on the character of 
its inhabitants. 


S. Xj. 280. Which is the lowest portion of the surface of the earth ? What 
can you say of the land 1 How is this height generally measured ? 281. What 
are lowlands ? What are highlands ? Do they differ in temperature ? 282. What 
must we know to judge correctly of the climate of a country ? 283. What is 
said of the surface of a country? When is it called a plain? When is it 
called a waving country ? 284. When is a country called hilly or mountainous? 
When a mountain land ? 285. Wliat influence has the face of a country ? 


* Physical Geography is designed for the second course of study. 





98 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


PLAINS. 

286. A large 'part of the surface of the land consists of plains, under 
various names. They cover two thirds of the surface of America and 
Europe^ and one third of that of Asia and Africa. 

287. Many plains are among the most fertile and cultivated regions 
of the earth. Others produce only grass, and furnish pasturage to 
cattle; and.others still are mere marshes or deserts. 

SAVANNAS AND STEPPES. 

288. Plains covered with grass are found in every part of North 
America, between the Apalachian and the Chippewan Mountains, and 
are called prairies or savannas. Some are of small size., but others 
extend as far as the eye can reach. The soil is usually very rich. 

289. Such plains are common in South America, where they are 
called llanos (le d nos) or pampas., some of which are as large as the 
whole of Europe. 

290. Their appearance varies materially at different seasons. Dxir- 
ing the foods of the rivers, a llano is covered with water, and forms a 
vast lake. When the icater subsides, it becomes what the natives call 
“ a sea of grass,” growing to the height of a man. /ri the dry season, 
it is scorched like a desert. 

291. In the south-eastern part of Europe, and in Asia, there are 
vast plains, resembling the llanos, called steppes. 

292. Dry plains, producing a scanty vegetation, are found in Ohio, 
which are called barrens. Many on the coast of the United States, 
from New Jersey to Georgia, produce only pine-trees, and are called 
pine barrens. Many similar plains, in Great Britain and Germany, 
produce only the heath plant, and are called heaths. 


MARSHES. 

293. Plains which have a spongy soil retain the water wliich falls 
upon them, and become marshes, or swamps, consisting of half¬ 
liquid mud, sometimes of great depth, and covered with coarse grass 
or rushes. Men and animals often sink suddenly into them, and 
most of them arc scarcely passable, except in very dry weather, or 
when they are frozen. 

Marshes are also called bogs, moors, morasses, and in Scotland, mosses. 
The quicksands often found on the borders of the sea are like marshes, 


P, 286. Of what does a large part of the surface of the land consist ? How 
much of Europe and America do these cover ? How much of Asia and Africa ? 
287. What can you say of the soil and productions of plains ? S, S, 288. What 
are prairies or savannas ? What is said of their size ? Of their soil ? 289. What 
is said of the llanos or pampas of S. America .!* 290. How does their appearance 
vary ? How is a llano affected by the floods of the rivers ? When the waters sub¬ 
side, what does it become ? What is its state in a dry season ? 291. What are 
steppes ? 292. What are barrens ? Where do we find pine barrens ? What aro 
heaths.!* 293. What plains are called marshes.!* Describe the dangers they 

occasicn. 



SURFACE OF THE LAND. 


99 


except that they are composed of sand 5 and both, sometimes, swallow up 
men and animals. ^ 

^‘^4. The Southern United States have extensive swamps, many of 
which produce rich crops of rice. The marshes of Florida, called ever¬ 
glades, are almost covered with water, and are scarcely passable, except 
for the Indians, who inhabit the islands scattered among them, and 
are well acquainted with them. 

295. Some marshes, in moist and temperate countries, consist chiefly 
of peat or turf, a substance composed of the roots and fibres of mosses 
and other vegetables, which may be dried, and used for fuel. One 
tenth of the surface of Ireland is covered with peat moors; and they 
are common in the temperate regions of Europe and North America. 

DESERTS. 

296. Plains composed of sand, or sandstone, or otlier rocks which 
allow the water to pass through them, are generally very dry. Most 
of them are destitute of springs and streams, and become deserts, 
especially in hot countries. 

297. In most deserts, nothing appears in view, but a sea of sand 
bounded by the horizon, which is perpetually moving with the wind, 
or rolling in waves like the ocean. 

In a few hours, hills of some height are formed. There are no perma¬ 
nent mountains or hills, and few trees or villages, to serve as landmarks to 
the traveller. He must be guided entirely by the compass or the stars. He 
is obliged to carry water as well as food 5 for it is only at great, and often 
at uncertain distances, that he can hope to find a single spring, or even the 
shade of a rock, to refVesh him. 

298. The fine sands of the desert often float in the air, like vapor. 
Sometimes they are raised, by whirlwinds, into sand storms; or in 
vast columns, whose tops are out of view. 

299. In the midst of the deserts, a few spots are found, like islands 
in the ocean, containing springs or streams. These are called oases. 
On reaching an oasis, a traveller often passes at once from burning, 
barren sands to fertile fields, and shady groves,and beautiful villages; 
and sometimes finds a kingdom in the midst of deserts. 

The Asiatic kingdoms of Bokhara and Khiva are oases in the midst of 
the desert of Tartary. 

300. A remarIcaJde belt of deserts extends from the western coast of 
Africa to the eastern part of Asia. One of these, and the most 
remarkable in the world, is the Sahara of Africa, a vast ocean of 
burning sand, 2000 or 3000 miles long, and 700 broad, with a few 
oases scattered through it. The Arabs call it “ Sahara bela mar,” 
or “ The ocean without water.” 

294. Wliat swamps do you find in the Southern United States ? What can you 
say of the everglades 1 295. Of what do the mai shcs in temperate countries some¬ 
times consist } What examples can you mention ? 296. What can you say 

of plains composed of sand or sandstone ? What are deserts ? 297. What ap¬ 
pears in view in deserts ? 298. What can you say of the sands of the desert ? 

299. What are oases.? What does a traveller find on reaching an oasis.? 

300, What belt of deserts is mentioned ? Describe the most remarkable of these. 



100 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


The desert of Gobi, or Shamo, in the highlands of Central Asia, is tlie 
most elevated, and one of the largest, in the world. 

301. In North America^ there is an extensive tract of sand and 
sandstone, East of the Chippewan Mountains, which is called the 
Great American Desert. 

302. This region, and other desert tracks in cold climates^ which 
are scorched by the sun in the summer, are desolated in winter by 
freezing winds and violent storms. In the steppes of Southern 
Russia and Tartary, the cattle, and even herdsmen, sometimes perish, 
and armies are scattered or destroyed by the cold and storms. 

303. Many of the deserts and steppes are so impregnated with salt, 
that, in the dry season, it crystallizes on the surface, and forms a hard 
crust, or sometimes a feathery kind of vegetation, which gives the 
whole plain a dazzling whiteness and brilliancy. 

ELEVATION OF PLAINS. 

304. Most plains are lowlands, rising very little above the level of 
the sea, like those of Europe, Siberia, and South America. If the 
Atlantic Ocean should rise only a few hundred feet, it would cover 
the greater part of South America. 

305. Some plains are even below the level of the sea. Thus the 
steppes around the Caspian Sea are from 70 to 100 feet lower than 
the Mediterranean; and Holland is so much lower than the North 
Sea, that it is only preserved from the waters by banks or dikes. 

306. Other plains are above the level of the sea, and belong to the 
highlands. The greater part of Mexico lies on a level table land, 8000 
feet above the sea. 

MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS. 

307. Mountains sometimes rise singly in the midst of a plain ; 
but they are generally united in groups or chains, which cover a 
great extent of country. 

308. Sometimes several chains run out from a central mountain or 
ridge, as in the Alps ; sometimes they form a number of irregular 
groups. The great American chain, consisting of the Andes and 
Rocky or Chippewan Mts., is the only one which extends thousands 
of miles in a single line. 

309. peak is one of the highest points of a mountain, or chain of 


301. What desert in North America, and where ? 309. What is said of the 
weather of the deserts in cold climates. 303. What appearance does salt pro¬ 
duce on some of the deserts E, p, 304. What are most plains .? What if 
the Atlantic Ocean should rise a few hundred feet near S. America i 305. Can 
you mention any plains below the level of the sea306. What can you say of 
plains above the level of the seaWhat is the case with Mexico i jyi, 

307. How do mountains sometimes rise 1 IIow are they generally ? 308. IIow 
do several chains sometimes run out i What do they also sometimes form ? 
What can you say qf the great American chain ? 309. What is a peak ’ 



SURFACE OF THE LAND. 101 


mountains, and is often called a horn, tooth, nose, head, or bell, from 
its peculiar form. 

310. The crest of a mouniain chain is the line of its average height, 
or of its ridge, and is usually half as high as the peaks. The crest and 
peaks of the Central Alps are shown in the following engraving:_ 



(65) Profile of the Central Alps, with their Peaks, Cresls, and Passes. 


311. When the crest of a range of mountains is nearly straight, it 
is called a ridge. When it is cut by cross valleys into numerous 
points, it is called by the Spaniards a sierra, or saw. When it spreads 
into a broad surface, it forms a table land. 

312. The side of a mountain, or a tract of land sloping gradually 
from the highlands towards the lowlands, is called a declivity. The 
termination of a mountain declivity is called its foot or base. 

313. When the descent to the lowlands is by successive steps or 
levels, each step is called a terrace. 

This section repre¬ 
sents the Atlantic Low¬ 
lands of Virginia, at 
A L ; the Atlantic Ter¬ 
race at A T ; the Blue 
Ridge, at B R; the 
Katatin Mts., at K Mts., 
the Allegany Mts., at 

A Mts; the Apalachian (66) Section of the Apalachian Mts. 

table land, or great 

Valley of Virginia, at A Tb; and the Western Terrace, at W T. 


AMta 



VALLEYS AND PASSES. 

314. Valleys which lie between parallel ranges of mountains are 

What other names are given to it.? 310. What is the crest of a mountain 
chain.? What is its height compared with the peaks.? 311. What is a ridge of 
mountains? When do the Spaniards call it a sierra.? When does it form a t ilde 
land.? 312- What is a declivity? What is its foot or base.? 313- What is a 
terrace.? * 

















102 


PHYSICAL CEOGRAPIJY. 


called longitudinal or regular valleys. Those which cross the ranges 
are called transverse valleifs. 

315. A transverse valley, through which we can go over a moun¬ 
tain, is called a. pass^ or, in the United States, a 7wtcU or gap. Many 
of these give passage to roads and railways, which are used in com¬ 
merce, like those named on the profile of the Central Alps (65). 

316. Some valleys arc on highlands., and are very far above the 

level of tlie sea, as we may observe in the passes of the Alps on the 
profile. These are sometimes so as to form table lands; as in 

the'^ Andes. 

317. Transver.se valleys are sometimes mere clefts or chasms., shut 
in by perpendicular wa'lls of rock, as in the Notch of the White 
Mountains, and are often called defies., or glens. 

318. A river frequently passes through a defile in the mountains, 

like the River Shenandoah, at Harper’s Ferry. (6cc engraving for 
Virginia.) In opening a way through the mountains,*a defih' is 
sometimes called a gate; as the Gates of the Chippewan Mt.<«. 
through which the River Missouri passes. * 

319. When a part of the rock is left, covering .such a defile, it 
forms a natural brido-e, like that over Cedar Creek, in Virginia. ' 


SNOWS AND GLACIERS. 



TJ". I*. 3]4. What are longitudinal or regular valleys.? What are transverse 
valleys.? 315. What is a pass.? What is it called in the United States? To 
what do many of these give pas.sage.? 316. What can you sav of the height of 
valleys which are on highland.s ? What of their breadth .? 317. What are defiles 
or glens.? 318. How do rivers frecjuently pass tlirough mountains.? When is a 
defile called a gate.? Give on exampU. 319 What is a natural bridge? Give 
an example. ® 

































SlJRt'ACK OF THE LAND. 


103 


320. la cold countries, the tops of mountains are covered with snow 
longer than the plains below, showing that they are colder. The tops 
of lofty mountains are covered with perpetual snow at all seasons, 
even in hot climates. 

321. The snoxo which falls in the valleys of lofty mountains, in cold 
climates, melts by day, and treezes by night into masses of ice. These 
gradually increase, and spread through the valleys, and down the 
sides of the mountains, until they form a lake or river of ice, like that 
in the engraving 67, which is called a glacier. 

A glacier is often several miles in extent, sometimes glittering like a plain 
covered with precious stones, or adorned witli pyramids and blocks of ice 
which seem like tlie spires and buildings of a city of crystal. There is 
frequently a row of rocks upon a glacier. Those represented in fig. 61, 
moved with the ice hall a mile in four years, with the stone hut upon them. 

322. Glaciers sometimes extend to the cultivated fields and villacres 
at the foot of the mountains, and sometimes destroy them. They 
have filled up several passes in the Alps, which were formerly open. 

323. Vast masses frequently break off from the snov/s and glaciers 
of lofty mountains, and slide into the valleys below, with a tremendous 
roar. They are called araluncbes; and they sometimes bury trav¬ 
ellers, and even whole villages. 

324. The glaciers of the Polar Regions descend to the sea, and cover 
the coast; and the avalanches which break from them form icebergs, 
or islands of ice. (6'ce H 1 14.) 

325. Many mountains rise above the common height of clouds, so 
that a traveller sometimes pas.ses through a cloud, and, at other times, 
sees a storm below him, while lie enjoys the sunshine. 

USE.S OF MOUNTAINS. 

326. The hills, mountains, and valleys of the earth add much to 
the beauty of its scenery. 

327. They serve more important purposes by the care and wisdom 
of Hi.m who made them. They condense the vapors into rain and 
snow; the loftiest are covered with perpetual snow; and thus they 
become inexhaustible reservoirs of loater, to supply the springs and 
streams wliich fertilize the earth. 

328. But they are especially useful in furnishing declivities and 
valleys, by which the waters descend to the ocean, in living, health¬ 
ful streams, instead of stagnating, as they often do in level countries, 
in unhealthy pools and marshes. 

s. a. 320. How are th.a tops of mountains covered in cold countries? 
Wliat can you say of the tops of lofty mountains in hot climates? 321. What 
is said of this snow ? What are glaciers ? 322. How far do glaciers sometimes 

extend ? What have they done in the Alps ? 323. What are avalanches, and 
what effects do they produce? 324. What can you say of the glaciers of the 
Polar Regions ? What do the avalanches there form ? 325. How high do moun¬ 
tains sometimes rise? What does a traveller sometimes see? IVI. 326. 

What effects have hills, mountains, and valleys, on scenery ? 327. What more 
important purposes do they serve? In what way are theyusefiil? 328. How 
are they especially useful ? 



104 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


HEIGHT OF MOUNTAINS. 

329. The loftiest mountains in the toorld are the Himalaya Mts. in 
India, some of whose peaks are from 5 to 6 miles above the level of 
the sea. 

330. The next in height are the Andes of South America — which 
are from 4 to 5 miles in height — and the mountains of Mexico. The 
highest in Europe are the Alps, about 3 miles high ; and some peaks 
of the Chippewan Mountains in North America are still higher. All 
these, and others above 15,000 feel in height, may be considered as 
mountains of the first rank. 

331. The Pyrenees of Spain are above 2 miles in height, and the 
Altaian Chain of Asia is generally about this height. These, and 
others from 10,000 to 15,000 feet in height, may be considered as 
mountains of the second rank. 

332. The Ural. Mountains of Russia, the Scandinavian or Dofrafield 
Mountains, and the Apennines of Italy, are from 5,000 to 10,000 feet 
high ; and the Apalachian Mountains of the United States have peaks 
from 5000 to 6500 feet high. These, and others from 5,000 to 10,000 
feet in height, may be called mountains of the third rank. All below 
5000 feet may be classed together in the fourth rank. 

333. The longest chain of moantains on the globe is the Great 
American Chain, including the Andes and Chippewan Mountains; 
and the next, the North Asiatic, or Altaian Chain. 

The length of other chains may be seen in the following table ; — 



J.nics. 


Miles. 

The Andes. 

Mexican and Chippewan Mts., . 

Whole American Chain,. 

Altaian Mountains,. 

Himalaya Mts.,. 

Ural Mountains,. 

. . 4,509 
, . 7,000 
. 11,.500 

Scandinavian (Dofrafield) 

Mountains,. 

The Alps,. ) 

The Apennines,.) 

Carpathian Mountains, . . . , 
Gretm Mountains,.. 

600 to 700 

.500 

.aso 

Mt. Atlas, .....". 

> 1,500 

'I’he Pyrenees,. 

.900 

Apalachian Mts .. 





ISLANDS. 

334'. Islands are the tops of mountains or table lands, whose base 
is in the bed of the ocean, and whose valleys and passes are filled 
with its waters. See figure 43, p. 53. 


HI. 3M. 329. What can you say of the loftiest mountains of the world? 
330. What of the height of the Andes of S. America and the mountains of Mex¬ 
ico ? What are the highest in Europe, and how high ? What mountains in N. 
America are still higher ? What rank of mountains do these form ? How high is 
the first rank ? 331. How high are the Pyrenees ? Where are they ? What other 
mountains of this height ? To W’hat rank do these belong, and what is its height ? 
332. How high are the Ural Mountains ? What other mountains of this height ? To 
what rank do these belong, and how high is it ? What is the 4th rank ? 333. What 
is the longest chain of mountains on the globe ? I, 334. What are islands? 
















INTERIOR OF THE EARTH. 


105 


335. They have all the varieties of situation and ap 2 }earance which 
belong to mountains; some rising alone, like insulated mountains, 
as the celebrated rock of St. Helena; others arranged in groups; and 
others still in chains. 

335. Along the coast of the continents we find ranges of islands, 
which are usually long and narrow, with their points turned towards 
each other, like those E. of Asia. They are called continental islands; 
and appear like chains of mountains, torn from the main land, and 
partly sunk in the ocean. 

iV chain of continental islands extends along the eastern coast of Asia, 
from Kamschatka to Malacca. Others bend around the shores of New 
Holland, the northern coast of South vVmerica, the northern and southern 
extremities of the western continent, and the north-western coast of Af¬ 
rica. The British Isles form, in the same manner, an outpost to Europe; 
and the coasts of Norway, Denmark, Holland, Greece, and New England, 
are bordered by similar chains of small islands. 

337. The round or elliptical islands are generally found in the 
midst of the sea, either alone, or forming groups rather than chains, 
as in the Pacific. These islands become the great hotels of the ocean, 
to which the seaman resorts for refreshment and intercourse ; like 
St. Helena and the Sandwich Islands. 

33d. In the Torrid Zone there are small, marine animals, called 
coral polypi, that build the coral^ or madrepore rocks^ as their dwell- 
ing-})lace, and thus form reefs which surpass in extent the proudest 
works of man. 

333. When these rocks reach the surface, the sea throws up sand, 
earth, shells, and the seeds of plants and trees, so that many at length 
become islands, covered with soil and vegetation, and fit for the 
residence of man. 

On the coast of New Holland, there is a reef of coral extending 750 
miles; and many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean are composed entirely 
of coral. 


INTERIOR OP THE EARTH. 

340. In the rocks and mountains of the earth we sometimes find 
holes which are called caves or caverns, and artificial caverns have 
often been dug to form dwellings or tombs, or as mines from which 
to obtain useful metals and minerals. But these openings have not 
been examined even to the depth of a mile below the surface of the 
earth. 

341. We therefore know little of the interior of the earth; but we 
find, so far as we can go, that it is composed of the same rocks and 
minerals which are found on the surface. 

335. What is said of their situation and appearance ? 336. What are continen¬ 
tal islands I 337. Where are the round or elliptical islands, and what is said of 
them 338. How are the coral or madrepore rocks formed ? 339. How do they 
at length become islands ? I. E. 340. What are caves or caverns ? How far 
below the surface of the earth have they been examined ? 341. What do we 

know of the interior of the earth } 




106 


r H V C l C A i , G E c. G K A ¥ I f Y. 


342. Jn digging or horhig in the enrtli to a great depths we find the 
heat increasing as vve descend. In all parts of the globe, hot springs 
are also found, often rising from a great depth. Many of these have 
been equally hot since the time of the ilomans, 2000 years ago. 

343. This sho 2 cs 21 s, that there are fires within the earth. They 
are also seen bursting out from volcanoes, and from openings made 
by earthquakes, in all the grand divisions cf the world, and even 
amidst the snows and ice of the Frigid Zones 


(JAVFoS. 


344. Some caves are large and lofty, and some extend horizontally 
for miles into the earth, containing lakes and streams of water, of 
unfathomable depth. Others are remarkable for the beautiful min¬ 
erals found in them; or, like the Cave of Gailenreuth, represented in 
the engraving 68, for the vast collections of bones of animals which 
they contain. The hollow sound of the ground under our feet will 
often show us where caves exist. 



345. One of the most extensive caverns hno2Pa is the Mammoth Cave 
of Kentucky, which has been explored for the distance of several 
miles, and contains a hotel. 

346. FingaVs Cave, In the Scottish island of Stafta. is one of the 
grandest caverns known, formed of pillars of the rock called basalt 
so regular tliat they ap pear like hewn stone. It is 117 feet high at 

342. VVJiat do we find on digging or boring into the earth .? How long have 
some of the hot springs been equally liot.? 343. What does this show us.? How 
else arc they seen G, 344. What is said of caves .? 34.';. What is one of the 
most extensive known = 34fi. Describe Fingal’s Dave. 



















STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 107 

its mouth, and is thus opened to the liglit, as well as to the sea, which 
rolls into it. 

347. Caves are common in limestone countries. The water, tric¬ 
kling through their sides and roof, dissolves some of the lime, and, in 
dropping, forms crystalline limestone. 

348. In many cases it forms stalactites, which hang like icicles 
from the roof. These often descend in pillars to the door, or unite 
in curtains that cover the sides, and glitter, by torch-light, like 
precious stones. 

349. The Grotto of Antiparos, in Greece, and Weyer’s Cave and 
Madison’s Cave, in Virginia, and the Mammoth Cave represented in 
the description of Kentucky, (p. 205,) are among the most grand and 
beautiful caves of this kind. 

350. Few caves are so deep that we can perceive the internal heat 
of the earth. (See 11 342.) But the changes of seasons affect them so 
little, that they preserve nearly the same temperature at all times, and 
feel cool in summer and warm in winter. 

Hence persons in feeble health have lived in the hotel built in the 
Rlannnoth Cave of Kentucky, during the winter, to avoid the severe cold. 


STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH; 

OR, SOILS, ROCKS, AND MINERALS. 

351. The solid body of the earth is composed of rocks and soil of 
various kinds; and we find the same kinds on islands and continents, 
in all parts of the world, and in the bed of the sea. 

352. Soils are divided into various classes, of which the principal 
are cojnposed either of sand, of claij, of loam, which is a mixture of 
sand and clay, of mould, consisting chiefly of decayed vegetables, or 
oY gravel. Some soils are composed principally of lime. 

3.53. The rocks are composed chiefly of the same substances, 
mingled together, and changed into various forms by water and fire. 

354. The principal rocks, sandstone, slate or clay stone, granite, 
and limestone, (which includes marble,) are used for building, and are 
found in all parts of the world, in great quantities. 

35.5. Among these rocks ice find coal, salt, iron ore, and gypsum, 
or plaster of Paris, scattered in abundance ; and these are sometimes 
in sufficient quantities to form mountains. Turf, or peat, 


.347. Where are caves common 1 What effect has the water here ? 348. What 
are formed in many cases ? Describe them. 349. What are some of the most 
beautiful caves of this kind 350. Can we perceive the internal heat of the earth 
in caves } What is said of their temperature ? What is said of the Mammoth 
Cave of Kentucky in this respect i S. S. 351. Of what is the solid body of 
the earth composed ? 352. How are soils divided ^ Mention and describe them. 

353. Of what are rocks composed ? 354. What can you say of the principal 
rocks? 3.55. What do we find among these rocks? What is the use of turf or 
peat? 



108 


PHYSICAL geography. 


uable fuel, which is common in the marshes of cold countries ; and 
beds of coal are most common in these countries. 

356. We also find many oilier useful minerals^ of which the most 
valuable are the ores of the metals, the precious stones, the salts used 
in medicine, and the inflammable minerals, sulphur, bitumen or 
asphaltum, and amber. 

357. The most useful metals^ iron, lead, and copper, are found 
abundantly in most parts of the world. Tin, zinc, mercury, and 
other metals^ are found less abundantly, but in sufficient quantities 
for our use. 

358. The precious metals are the most rare. Silver is most abun¬ 
dant in South America and Mexico; and gold in South America and 
Africa; although both are found in other parts of the world. The 
diamond, ruby, and other precioais stones, are obtained chiefly from 
South America, and Southern Asia and its islands. 

359. Sulphur is abundant in most volcanic countries, and seems to 
form a large part of the fuel of their fires. Other minerals are found 
in various parts of the earth, but not in large quantities. 

360. The soil of a country is culled fertile, when plants grow well 
and abundantly upon it. It is barren, when it produces few and 
poor plants. 

361. Soils of mould and loam are the most fertile, and supply us 
with most of our food. Soils consisting only of clay are less fertile. 
Sandy, stony, and rockij soils, are generally barren; but they are 
sometimes the most rich in minerals. 

362. We can see the kindness and care of Providence, in making 
the most useful rocks and minerals most common, so that they render 
many barren regions valuable ; and in making coal and turf most 
abundant in cold countries, where they are needed for fuel. 


EFFECTS OF INTERNAL FIRES; 

OR, VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 

363. The internal fires of the earth sometimes burst out, and this 
is called an eruption. The mountain or place from which they break 
out is called a volcano, like Mt. Etna. The opening is called the 
crater; and the engraving 70 shows the crater at the top of Mt. Etna. 

364. Some volcanoes throw out streams of red-hot, melted stones. 


Where are beds of coal most common ? 356. What other useful minerals do 
we find? 357. Where are the most useful metals found? What other metals 
are mentioned ? 358. What is said of the precious metals ? Where is silver 
found most abundantly ? Where gold ? The precious stones ? 359. Where is 
sulphur abundant ? Where are other minerals found ? 360. When is the soil of 
a country called fertile? When barren? 361. What soils are most fertile? 
What soils less so? What can you say of sandy, stony, and rocky soils? 
362. How are the care and kindness of the Creator seen ? "V". Xla 363. What 

is an eruption, or what is a volcano? What is a crater r 364. What do some 
volcanoes throw out ? 



VOLCANOES AND EARTHQ,UAKES, 


lod 



(69) Mount Etna by Moonlight. 

called lava., and showers of stones and ashes. Others throto oiU only 
liot water and mud, as is generally the case with those of South 
America. The ashes, lava, and mud thrown out from a volcano, 
sometimes cover extensive tracts of country, and bury whole cities. 

The cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, in Italy, were buried in the 
ashes and lava of Vesuvius, A. D. 79 5 and the mud of volcanoes has desolated 
extensive regions in the Indian Archipelago. 

365. Earthquakes are tremblings of the earth which usually take place 
when a volcano is not in eruption, and in many countries where none 
are found. They sometimes cause the earth to sliake and heave, like 
the sea in a storm. They even throw down buildings, and often 
destroy whole cities in a moment. 

366. Earthquakes sometimes open chasms hi the earth, which throw 
out flames, and swallow up all that is around. In other cases, they 
throw up new mountains and islands, which are generally volcanic. 

The city of Port Royal, in Jamaica, was swallowed up during an earth¬ 
quake. The volcano of Jorullo, IGOO feet in height, was thrown up by an 
earthquake on a plain in Mexico, in 1759. {See p. 218.) Several of the 
Greek islands in the yEgean Sea arose in this way. In 1811, a new volcano 
rose up near the Azoresj and in 1813, another near Sicily} but both have 
since disappeared. 

367. Earthquakes generally precede the eruption of a volcano, and 
are most violent at a distance from it. They usually cease as soon as 
an eruption begins; and frequently begin when it ceases. 

What do others throw out ? What is said of the ashes, lava, and mud thrown 
out from a volcano.^ Give examples. 365. What are earthquakes.? What 
effects do they sometimes produce.? 366. Do earthquakes ever produce openings 
or elevations of the earth.? 367. What do earthquakes generally precede .? When 
do they generally cease.? 


















110 


r H vs I C AL G F. OGR AP HY 


368. This shoics that eruptions and earthquakes are both pro¬ 
duced by the same internal fires. They are caused undoubtedly by 
the expansion or explosion of steam, or inflammable air; as in the 
bursting of a cannon, or of the boiler of a steam-engine. 

369. Hence ice ice, also, that volcanoes are the safety-valves, or 
chimneys, through which these vapors find vent; and we perceive 
the goodness of the Creator, even in their terrible eruptions, which 
prevent the more extensive destruction of earthquakes. At the same 
time, we see in both some of the most striking exhibitions of his 
power. “ He looketh on the earth, and it trembleth. He toucheth 
tlie hills, and they smoke." 

370. More than 300 volcanoes are known to exist in the world; of 
which one third are in America, one third in the islands of Oceanica, 
and the remainder on the Eastern Continent and its neighboring 
islands. 

371. A range of volcanoes, some burning, and others extinguished, 
extends along the Andes, from the southern part of South America 
to Mexico; and we find others in this range, near to Beering’s Straits. 
This range is continued on the western coast of the Pacific Ocean, 
through Kamschatka and Japan, to the East India Islands. 



(70) Crater of Mount Etna. 


372. Most of the islands of the Pacific, and many of the Atlantic and 
Indian Oceans, are also volcanic, or else composed of volcanic rocks. 


3G8. VVhat does this show.? How are they probably caused.? 369. What do 
we thus perceive of the goodness of the Creator.? 370. How many volcanoes are 
known to exist, and where.? 371. What volcanoes in South America and ]\Rx- 
ico? Where is tliis range rnntinned ? 375. tVhat islands are volcanic ? 
















SPRINGS. 


in 


373. jy^e most ancient volcanoes knoicn are Mt, Vesuvius in Italy, 
Mt. Etna in Sicily, and Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands, near Si* 
cily. Stromboli burns continually, and is called “ the great lighthouse 
of the Mediterranean.” 

374. One of the most remarkable volcanoes in the world is that of 
Kilauea, in the Sandwich Islands, which burns continually, and whose 
crater contains a sea of red-hot, melted lava, sometimes several miles 
in diameter. 

375. The loftiest volcanoes known are those of Orizaba in Mexico, 
and Antisana and Aconagua in South America, which are from 3 to 
5 miles in height. 

376. As volcanoes exist in most parts of the world, earthquakes 
also frequently extend to distant countries at the same time. The 
earthquake of Lisbon in 1755, in which St. Ubes, in Portugal, was 
swallowed up, was felt in New England ; and that which destroyed 
Caraccas^ in South America, in 1812, and buried 20,000 people, was 
felt in many parts of the United States. 


WATERS OF THE I.ANI). 

SPRINGS. 

377. A part of the water which falls upon the land, in rain and 
snow, collects beneath the surface, and forms springs. Some of 
these rise to the surface, while others are founu only by digging 
wells. 

378. Springs on the siirface usually flow out in little streams called 
rivulets or brooks. But some seem to 
flow from a cavern, and are so large as 
to form a river at once; like the Fountain 
of Vaticluse, in Southern France. 

A few springs rise hi a fo-untain^ or 
throw up a stream of water to a great 
height, like the hot springs of Iceland, 
called the Geysers, whicli sometimes 
throw up their waters more than 100 
feet, as represented in the engraving 71. 

379. Springs are frequently ; but 
many dissolve some of the minerals of 
the earth in passing through it; and'are 
thus made “ hardf as it is termed, or 
unfit for dissolving soap and washing 
clothes. 


373. What are the most ancient volcanoes known ? 374. What is one of the 
most remarkable volcanoes in the world ? Describe it. 37.5. What are the lof¬ 
tiest volcanoes known 376. What i.s said of the extent of earthquakes ? Give 
examples. S. 377. How are springs formedWhere are they found ? 
378. Wliat is said of springs on the surface ? What is .said of those that rise in 
fountains ? Give an example. 379. What can you say of the purity of springs * 









112 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


380. Springs which pass through beds of salt, become brine springs ; 
and salt is obtained from them by evaporation, as it is from sea-water. 

The state of New York, and the Western United States, have many val¬ 
uable brine springs, which supply them with large quantities of salt. 

381. In countries tv here limestone abounds^ tlie springs generally 
contain lime, and sometimes so much, that twigs, leaves, and other 
things which fall into them, are covered with a crust of lime, which 
takes their shape when they decay, and forms a petrifaction. These 
are called incrusting and petrifying springs. 

382. Many springs contain medicinal minerals; and others are 
warm or hot. Both are used in the cure of diseases, and are called 
mineral springs. 

RIVERS. 

383. Rivers sometimes flow from a single spring, or lake, or 
glacier. But generally they are formed by a number of rivulets or 
brooks united, which now from the highlands; and their waters are 
finally emptied into the sea. 

384. The place from which a river flows is called its source; and 
the place where it empties itself is called its mouth. The small 
streams which unite to form it are called its branches. 

385. The bed of a river is the hollow in which it flows. The chan¬ 
nel is the deepest part of its bed. 

386. The tract of country occupied by a river with many branches, 
is commonly a valley, surrounded on three sides by highlands, and 
hence it is generally called the basin of the river ; as the basin of the 
Mississippi. 

387. The ridge or elevation which divides the basins of rivers is 
called the watershed., because the waters flow from it in opposite 
directions ; or, in the United States, the height of land. 

388. The waters of a country usually flow from the highest parts, 
and descend, through its valleys, to the lowest. Hence we may 
generally consider the bed and mouth of a river as the lowest parts of 
its basin; and we may find out the declivities or slopes of a country, 
in most cases, by tracing on the maps the course of its principal 
streams, as they descend from their sources to their mouth. 

Thus, in looking at a map of North America, it is evident, from the course 
of the rivers falling into the Atlantic Ocean, that the declivity of the At¬ 
lantic States is towards the S-E. It is also evident that there are decliv¬ 
ities in different directions around Hudson’s Bay. On the map of Europe, 
Spain will be seen to have several declivities; Italy, two principal ones. 


380. What is said of brine springs381. What is there remarkable in the 
springs of limestone countries? What are these springs called? 382. What 
do mineral springs contain ? IIow are they used ? H,. 383. How do rivers 

sometimes flow ? How are they generally formed ? 384. What is the source 
of a river ? What is its mouth ? Its branches ? 385. What is the bed of 

a river? The channel? 386. The basin? 387. What is a water-shed? What 
other name is given to it ? 388. How do the waters of a country usually flow ? 
What may we consider the lowest parts of the basin? How may we ascertain 
the declivities of a country ? 



SOUKCES AND FALLS OF RIVERS. 113 

and several may be observed around tJie Baltic Sea, forming one basin. 
(See 11119.) 

EXERCISES ON THE MAPS. 

Trace the rivers of Northern Asia, and find in what direction the land 
slopes. What other declivities in Asia ? Which appears to be the highest 
portion of Asia ? Trace the declivities of North and South America in the 
same manner. Describe the declivities around the Baltic and Mediterra¬ 
nean Seas. Describe those of France and Italy. 

SOURCES AND FALLS OF RIVERS. 

389. We see on the maps, that rivers xokich rise in the same high¬ 
lands^ often flow into different and distant seas. Thus the streams 
which rise in the Chippewan Mountains^ in North America, send their 
waters to the Arctic Ocean on the North, and the Gulf of Mexico on 
the South — to Hudson’s Bay on the East, and the Pacific Ocean 
on the West. 

390. Hence the sources of rivers are often so near each other, tliat 
goods can be carried easily from one to the other. Tlie passage is 
called a portage^ and, in many cases, becomes an important channel 
of commerce. In other cases, the sources are united^ especially at 
high water, as in the Illinois and-Chicago Rivers of Illinois, so that 
boats pass from one to the other. 

Douglas found a lake on the Chippewan.Mts. which flows on the E. into 
the Saskatchawan River, and on Ine W. into the Columbia. Similar ex- 
anmles occur elsewhere. 

Portage is from the Latin word porto, to carry. 

391. The course of rivers is sometimes interrupted by hills or 
mountains, and then they sjnexid into lakes, until they rise so as to 
overflow their banks. In other cases^ they flow through a defile or 
chasm in the mountains. 

392. When a river flows down a steep but regular descent, it forms 
rapids; when it falls over a precipice, it forms a cataract; and when 
it falls~over several successive descents, it is often called a cascade. 
All these rapid portions of a river are also called falls; but this name 
is most frequently given to cataracts and cascades. 

393. The rivers of hilly and mountainous countries abound with 
falls, many of which are remarkable for their beauty or grandeur. 

394. The Falls of Niagara^ in North America, surpass all others 
known, in grandeur. The whole w'aters of the lakes here pass 
through a channel three quarters of a mile wide, and fall, with a cloud 
of spray, and a noise like that of thunder, over a precipice 160 feet 

high- _ 

Ex. S. r. R. 389. IIow do rivers that rise in the same highlands often 
flow t What is said of the streams that rise in the Chippewan Mountains i 
390. What is a portage.^ How are the sources of rivers in other cases? Give 
examples. 391. How is the course of rivers interrupted? How do they then 
spread ? What takes place in other cases ? 392. What are rapids ? What is a 
cataract ? A cascade ? What are all these called ? How is this name most fre¬ 
quently used ? 393. What can you say of the rivers of hilly and mountainous 
countries ? 394. Describe the Falls of Niagara 




114 


PHYSICAL GEOG'UAPHY. 


395. The most cclelrated fulls on the Eastern Continent are those 
of’the Rhine and the Nile ; but these do not exceed 70 feet in height. 
The highest are those of small streams, in the mountains of Norway 
and Switzerland, some of which are from 400 to 1000 feet high. The 
Cataract of Tequendama, near Bogota, in South Jlmerica, is 600 feet high. 

396. The falls of rivers obstruct navigation; and hence the rivers of 
hilly and mountainous countries are generally not navigable. 

397. But they are very useful in moving machinery, and furnish 
valuable mill-seats, for manufacturing establishments. These fre¬ 
quently increase to large towns, like Lowell in Massachusetts, 
Baterson iir New Jersey, and many others in the United States. 

398. The streams of level countries are less rapid, and more 
frequently navigable; but are destitiitc of falls and mill-seats, and 
often form unhealthy lakes or swamps. 

COURSE OF RIVERS. 

399. The course of a river may generally be described in three 
portions —(1) the upper course, in which the waters unite; (2) the 
middle course, or main body of the stream; and (3) the lower course, 
connected with its mouth. 

400. The upper course is usually among the hills and mountains; 
and therefore is generally very rapid and shallow, abounding in falls, 
which render it almost useless for navigation. 

401. In the middle course the descent is not so great, the stream is 
deeper and less rapid, and has few falls. It generally winds through 
a serpentine bed, and is navigable for boats. 

402. The lotcer course.^ from the last fall to the mouth, usually has 
a powerful but gentle current, often navigable for sea vessels. It 
frequently spreads into numerous branches. 

Thus the Rhine and Rhone wind down the mountains, in their upper 
course, with a rapid current and frequent falls. After spreading each into a 
lake, they flow more slowly, and are navigable in their middle course. In 
their lower course, they spread into broad, winding, gentle streams, and 
branch out each into a delta. 

In the engraving, p. 115, the course of such a river is represented, 
flowing between a mountain land on one side and a table land on the other, 
to its middle and lower course. 

Thus, also, the Mississippi, traced by its main stream, the Missouri, is a 
mountain torrent in its upper course. Below the Great Falls, it has a long 
and rapid, but navigable, middle course; and, on reaching the lowlands of 
the Gulf of Mexico, enters on its lower course, spreading in numerous 

395. What are the most celebrated falls on the Eastern Continent.? What are 
the highest? What cataract in South America, and how high? 398. Uow do 
the falls of rivers affect navigation ? What is said of the rivers of hilly and 
mountainous countries in this respect ? 397. How, then, are they useful ? Give 
examples. 398. What can you say of the streams of lev’el countries ? What do 
they often form ? C. ^99- lo how many portions may the course of a river 
generally be described ? What is the first ? The second ? The third ? 400. Where 
is usually the upper course? What effect has this? 401. What is said of the 
middle course ? How is it as to navigation ? 40?. How is the loAvcr course 

described ? Give examples. 





















































































































116 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 


channels and bayous, and terminating in a delta. The upper course of the 
Connecticut extends nearly to Haverhill, unfit for navigation. The middle 
course, to Hartford, is interrupted by falls, but still is generally navigable for 
boats. The low'er course, below Hartford, receives the tides, and is navi¬ 
gable for sea vessels of some burden. 

The following engraving represents a part of the middle course of the 
Connecticut River, as seen from Mount Holyoke, near Northampton in 
Massachusetts. We see here its serpentine form, like that which most 
rivers take in their middle course. 



(73) Connecticut River, as seen from Mount Holyoke. 


403. Every river has not all of the parts just described. Some flow 
directly from the mountains into the sea, and have no middle or 
lower course ; like those of Norway. Others flow from low swamps, 
or lakes, and have only the lower course; like some in the Southern 
United States. 

404. The descent of rivers in their up]>er course is often very great, 
while in the louder course, the ground is almost level. 

Thus the Amazon rises at the height of 10,000 feet in the Andes; but in 
its lower course, it descends only 40 feet in 400 miles. 

UNION OF RIVERS. 

405. The basins of rivers are sometimes so nearly on a level that 
their waters floic together, usually in the middle or lower course. 
Thus, the Cassiquiari, a large, navigable stream, unites the Orinoco 
with the River Negro, a branch of the Amazon, so that these two 
great rivers are connected. 

403. Has every river all the parts described } IIow do they vary i 404. What 
can you say of the descent of rivers in their upper and lower course ? Give an 
example. XJ» R* 405. Where and liow do the waters of rivers flow together ? 





















MOUTHS OF RIVERS. 


117 


406. This kind of union occurs most frequently in such as pursue 
nearly a parallel course j as in the rivers of Chin-India^ and the 
Ganges and Burrainpooter, of India. It is found, also, in those 
whose purees are near each other, but which separate widely in 
their middle courses, and unite in their lower courses; as in the 
Euphrates and Tigris, and the Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse-Kiang, of 
China. Such rivers are called ticin streams. 


MOUTHS OF RIVERS. 



1. Mouth of the La Plata. — 2. Amazon. — 3. Orinoco. — 4. Ganges, Hoang-Ho .— 
5. St. Lam-encc. — 6 . Danube. — 7. Rhine. — 8 . Connecticut. 

407. Rivers which einpt}' their waters from a high., rocky coast^ 
generally have a single, deep mouth, sometimes called an estuary., or, 
in Scotland, a frith. 

408. On low coasts, bordered by sands or marshes, the current and 
waves check each other, and often drop the sand and mud they 
contain at the mouth of a stream, so as to form a shoal or bar. 

409. These shoals frequently rise above the water, and enclose a 
shallow lake, called a lagoon, or sometimes an inlet. 

410. On other coasts of this kind, the mouth of a river divides into 
several branches, separated by islands, as in the Mississippi and the 
Nile. It is then called a delta, from its resemblance to the Greek 
letter J (^delta) in its form, as in the Nile, in Africa. {See map of 
.dfrica.) 

411. The width of a stream sometimes varies with that of its valley; 
but generally it depends on the quantity of water. The preceding 
sections of the mouths of some of the most remarkable rivers will 
show the vast difference in their breadth and depth. 

Thus it will be seen that the La Plata equals many rivers like the Ori¬ 
noco, in size, and that the Amazon is equal to 100 or 200 such rivers as the 
Connecticut in its quantity of water. 


Give an example. 406. TVTiere does this union most frequently occur.** What 
are twin streams ? Give examples. H. 407. What can you say of rivers 

which empty from a high, rocky coast ? What is this called ? 408. What takes 
place as to rivers on low coasts ? 409. What is a lagoon ? What other name is 
given to it410. What is a delta.? Why is it so called.? 411. How does the 
width of a stream vary.? On what does it generally depend i 










118 


PHYSICAL GEOGUAPHY. 


FLOODS OF RIVERS. 

412. In the season of rain, and at the time the snow melts, most 
rivers are so filled with water that they overflow their banks, and 
produce a flood, which sometimes covers the lowlands for many miles 
around. 

413. In the Torrid. Zone, and in icarm countries, floods usually take 
place in winter; and in cold countries, in the spring and autumn, 

414. The floods of rivers are sometimes very destructive, sweeping 
away even houses and villages, with their inhabitants. But they are 
generally very useful, not only by watering the lands which they 
cover, but by leaving upon them a slime, or mud, which makes them 
very fertile. 

The banks of the Connecticut, the Ohio, and many American rivers, are 
made rich by floods ; and Egypt would produce nothing without the floods 
of the Nile. 

415. In cold countries, the rivers are dosed with ice for a few 
months of winter, and in the Frigid Zone, they are frozen during 
most of the year. 

416. In the Torrid Zone, the streams are useful chiefly in winter. 
Many even of tlie large streams are almost dry in summer ; so that 
the people in tliat zone have a name for “ rivers without water.” 

417. Rivers fertilize the land, not only by their floods, but by 
spreading out on both sides beneath the surface. This may be seen 
by the water which is found in digging near a river, on reaching the 
level of the stream. On the borders of the Nile, it has been found to 
extend several miles. 

PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 

418. The most extensive basins, and the largest rivers, are found on 
the Western Continent. The Amazon, the La Plata, the Mississippi, 
and the St. Lawrence, surpass in size, and in the extent of their 
basins, all other rivers on the globe, except the Oby of Siberia. 

Tiie basin of the Amazon is equal in extent to one half ol’ Europe ; its 
length is between 3,000 and 4,000 miles; and its moutli 50 miles in width, 
so that the navigator can see but one bank. The Mississippi is equally 
long, with a basin equal to one third of Europe. Its breadth is miles, 
and its depth, in its lower course, 150 feet. 

The waters of the St. Lawrence expand into a chain of lakes, which cover 
a surface of 90,000 square miles. The Paraguay, or La Plata, is unrivalled 
for the size of its estuary of fresh water, 150 miles wide, on whieVi ships inav 
rail without seeing the land. The length of these rivers exceeds 2,5()() 
miles; and their basins are equal to one third of Europe in extent, com- 
I aring in both respects with the River Oby. 

S’. H. 412, What is a flood in a river? 413. When do floods usually occur in 
the Torrid Zone, and in warm countries ? When in cold countries ? 414. What 
is said of the destructive effects of floods ? How are they useful ? 415. When 
are the rivers closed in cold countries? When in the Frigid Zone? 416. When 
are rivers most useful in the Torrid Zone ? What is their state in the summer ? 
417. How do rivers fertilize the land ? How may this be seen ? P, B,, 418. 
Where are the most extensive basins and largest rivers found ? Give examples. 



LAKES, 


119 


419. The American rivers are equally remarkable for the extent 
oj theiv no.vigdtion. Steamboats can ascend the Mississippi more than 
3,000 miles, and the Missouri nearly 4,000 miles, from the sea. 

The Amazon is navigable for large ships for 2,000 miles, and for smaller 
vessels for the greater part of its course. The St. Lawrence, except in 
two or three points of interruption, is navigable for ships for a distance of 
ooO miles direct from the ocean. 

4si0. Js'txi in rank are the Hoanff-Ho, the Yang-tse-Kiano-, and the 
Amoor, of China; the Lena and Jenisei, of Siberia; the Volga; and 
the Nile. Their basins are each equal in extent to the United States, 
east of the Mississippi. The Volga is navigable nearly to its sources, 
and the Nile for a large part of its course. 

421. The Orinoco^ tho Gang's^ Xhe ladus^ihe Columbia, the Rio 
del Norte, the Danube, and the Euphrates, all have basins equal or 
superior in extent to the empire of Austria. The length of their 
windings varies from 1,300 miles, in the Ganges, to r,800, in the 
Danube. The mass of waters in the Orinoco is such that its mouth is 
25 miles wide. (See the engravings p. 117.) 

422. The rivers of Euroj/Cs except the Volga, are inferior in length 
to those alread}" mentioned, though valuable for navigation. In 
^Ifrica, the Nile is the only great river, which is well known, the 
Niger, is not yet fully explored. 

423. Rivers may be arranged according to their length, in four 
ranks, as follows: — 

1st Rank, exceeding 2,000 miles in length. 

2d Rank, from 1,500 to 2,000. 

3d Rank, from 1,000 to 1,500. 

4tli Rank, from 500 to 1,000. 

A table of the length of the principal rivers in the world will be found in 
the Atlcis accompanying this work. 

LAKES. 

424. Lakes are basins filled with water, and surrounded by land. 
SoTne receive no rivers^ and are supplied by rain or springs. Some, like 
the Caspian Sea, receive rivers, but have no outlet, and these are 
usually salt. 

425. Other lakes receive and discharge rivers. These are really 
only parts of the stream, which spreads over a basin or level tract in 
its course; like the great lakes of N. America. 

The great lakes of N. America are only expansions of the River St. Law- 

419 . What can you say of the extent of navigation of the American rivers 
How far is the Mississippi navigable ? 420 . What rivers are next in rank ? How 
far is the Volga navigable i The Nile i 421 . What can you say of the basins of 
other rivers ? Of their length } How great is the mass of waters of the Orinoco ? 
422 . What can you say of the rivers of Europe ? What rivers are mentioned in 
Africa i 423 . Give the extent of the four ranks of rivers. I*. 424 . What are 
lakes? How are those that receive no rivers supplied? What is said of those 
which receive rivers, but have no outlet ? 425 . What can you say of those which 
receive and discharge rivers ? 


G 



120 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


reiice. The Lake of Geneva, in Switzerland, is filled by the Rhone, which 
passes through it, and the Lake oi Constance, by fhe Rhine. 

426. Some lakes are formed by the floods of rivers^ and dry up 
when the floods cease. Others disaj)j)eai\, or dry wp at certain seasons^ 
and are then filled again; but these are less common. 

427. JVorlh Jlmericu is distinguished for the size of its lakes, which 
have even been the scenes of naval engagements. Lake Superior is 
the largest body of fresh water on the globe. The lakes of Nicaragua, 
in Central Jimerica^ and of Maracaybo and I'iticaca, in S. America^ 
are also very large bodies of water. Those, as well as the great 
lakes of N. America, are navigable for ships of any burden. 

428. The Caspian Sea of Asia is the largest inland body of water 
on the globe; but its waters are salt, and it is supposed by some to 
have been formerly connected with tne Black Sea and the Sea 
of Aral. 

429. Lake Baikal is the largest body of fresh water on the Eastern 
Continent, but is less than Lake Superior. Lakes Ladoga and 
Onega are the largest in Europe, but smaller than Lake Ontario. 

430. Africa has few lakes. I..ake Demhea is about equal to the 
Lake of the Woods in size. The Lake of Tchad, in Central Africa, 
is supposed to be as large as liakc Huron. 

431. Sweden, Finland, and the northern declivity of North America, 
are remarkable for the number of lakes occupying deep clefts or 
basins in the rocks on which these countiies are based. The low¬ 
lands of Northern Germany, on the S. of the Baltic, also abound in 
lakes, resembling those of flat countries generally. 


■Feet 



(75) Profile of the Elevation and Depth of American Lakes. 


432. The depth of mountain lakes is remarkable, compared with 
that of seas. Thus, while the Baltic Sea is about 120 feet deep, and 

426. What is said of lakes formed by the floods of rivers I What others are 
mentioned? 427. For what is North America distinsuished? Mention some of 
them. What are there in S. America? 428. What is said of the Caspian Rea? 
429. What of Lake Baikal? What are the largest lakes in Europe? 430. What 
lakes are there in Africa? How larpe are they? 431. For what are Sweden, 
Finland, and the northern declivity of N. America, remarkable ? What is said of 
the lowlands on the S. of the Baltic? 432. What is said of the depth of mountain 
lakes ? How do the Baltic and North Seas compare with some lakes ? 




































































CANALS. 


121 

the r^rth Sea does not generally exceed 400 feet, Lakes Superior 
and G^eneva are 900, Lakes Huron and Michigan are 1,000, and 
Lake Constance 1,200 feet deep. > . 

section illustrates the terraced valley of the St. Lawrence 
J he bottom of the American lakes is 300 feet below the level of the Atlan¬ 
tic 5 and would not be drained if every barrier were removed. 

433. The surface of some lakes or inland seas is entirely below the 
^ ocean. Thus the surface of the Caspian Sea is from 70 to 

90 feet lower than the Mediterranean; and the Dead Sea, or Lake of 
Asphaltites, not less than 1,000 to 1,300 feet below the same level. 

A table of the extent of lakes will be found in the Atlas accompanyincr 
this work. r / t, 

434. The usefulness of the waters which adorn and fertilize the 
land, and support all that has life, is too obvious to require illustra¬ 
tion. We find that even the falls of the streams, which obstruct 
navigation, are of great value in aiding the labors of man; and that 
floods, which sometimes produce desolation, are generally highly 
useful in enriching the soil and increasing the products of the earth. 

CANALS. 



^76) Lock on a Canal. 


435. Canals are artificial rivers, or channels dug by man to serve as 
water-passages. Some are made to drain or to water the land, like 
those of Egypt and Holland; and serve at the same time as roads., on 
which the people travel in boats. See the engraving. 


433. Are there any lakes entirely below the level of the ocean I Mention some 
examples. 434- What can you say of the usefulness of the waters ? C« 435. 
What are canals ? {A ditch is a small canal.) What other kind is mentioned in 
Egypt and Holland I 


6 




































122 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


436. Other canals are made entirely for navigation, so that boats or 
ships may pass around the falls of rivers, or across the land between 
two rivers or portions of water. 

By the Welland Canal, vessels can pass around the Falls of Niagara, from 
Lake Ontario to Lake Erie; and from Lake Erie, boats can pass, by the 
Ohio Canal, to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and the Gulf of Mexico. 

437. Canals frequently pass under mountains, in tunnels; and 
over rivers, in aqzieducts, being supplied from some high stream or 
lake. But generally they are carried over high land by means of 
locksy or tight reservoirs with gates, in which the boats are raised or 
let down from one level to another, by the water running in from 
above. 

438. England, France, Belgium, Holland, Northern Germany, and 
Russia, are crossed by canals which unite all their principal rivers and 
seas, and open a water-passage through all parts of the country. The 
principal lakes and rivers of the United States are connected in the 
same way. 

439. The Imperial Canal of China is the longest and largest in the 
world, e.xtending more than 700 miles South from Pekin, and three 
fourths of a mile wide at its entrance. 

440. The second canal in the loorld in length is the Erie Canal of 
New York, 360 miles long, connecting the Hudson River with Lake 
Erie, and with the canals that lead to the Mississippi River. 


THE ATMOSPHERE. 

441. The atmosphere is a hollow globe of air, enclosing the earth ; 
and is supposed to be from 45 to 100 miles high. 

442. It contains the vapors which form clouds, and which at last 
fall in mist, rain, snow, hail, and dew. It moves in winds, and often 
changes from wet to dry, from cold to hot, from calm to storm, and 
from healthy to unhealthy. 

443. All these states of the atmosphere are called climate ; and the 
climate of a country is said to be wet, dry, cold, hot, variable, &.c., 
according to the weather which is most common. 

444. We live and move in the atmosphere, almost like the fish in the 
sea. Our lives are sustained by breathing it; and its climate and 
changes affect our comfort and health. But the coldest as well as 
the hottest climates are usually pleasant to natives, or those who 
are born in th^m ; and the Greenlander is not so happy in a warm 

436. For what purposes are other canals made ? 437. What are tunnels ? 

Aqueducts ? Locks ? 438. What countries are crossed by canals ? W'hat can 
you say of the waters of the United States in this respect ? 439. Describe the 
Imperial Canal of China. 440. Describe the second canal of the world in length. 
T. Am 441. What is the atmosphere.? How high is it supposed to be.? 
442. What does it contain.? How does it move and change .? 443. What is cli¬ 
mate? When is a climate said to be wet or dry, cold or hot.? 444. How do we 
live and move in the atmosphere.? What effect have its climate and changes on 
us ? How does a climate affect natives.? 




WIND. 123 

climate, as in his native land, although it is covered with ice and 
snow. 

445. The air presses upon our bodies on all sides, as the water does 
upon the fish, and keeps our blood in its place, and our bodies in a 
healthy state, while this pressure is regular. 

446. Tlie air grows thinner, and presses less, as we rise above the 
level of the sea. When we ascend a mountain 5,000 or 6,000/eet /«g/i, 
the heart beats quicker; and this, with the freshness and purity of the 
air, makes us, for a time, feel stronger. 

447 But a traveller on a very high mountain pants for breath, and 
loses strength; and the heart beats so violently, that the blood often 
bursts from the mouth, and even from the eyes. 

44d. Those xoho Live in high countries become accustomed to this 
thin or rarefied air, and they feel an unpleasant weight upon them 
when they come down to low regions. 

449. Hence we see how kindly the Creator has made the atmosphere 
as we need it, to keep us in life and health; and still has fitted us to 
bear its changes when we are accustomed to them, and to live in all 
parts ol' the world. 

WIND. 

450. Wind is air put in motion, and is caused by the different 
degrees of heat in various parts of the earth. 

451. The air always rises ichen it is heated ; while that from colder 
regions rushes in to supply its place, just as the hot air rises over a fire, 
and the cold air rushes in and produces a wind which we call a draft. 

452. In islands, and places near the sea, in warm climates, there is 
usually a wind from the land in the morning, and from the sea in the 
afternoon, called land and sea breezes. 

453. hi the Torrid Zone, which is the hottest part of the earth, the 
air is most heated, and rises continually; while the colder air rushes 
in from the North and South, to take its place. 

454. At first, this causes North-East and South-East winds, in 
consequence of the motion of the earth; and in coming near the 
equator, they become at last easterly winds. These winds blow at 
all seasons in tiie Torrid Zone, and are called trade xcinds. 

455. In the Indian Ocean, there are winds called monsoons, which 
blow half the year from the N-E. and the other half from the S-W. 
Similar winds prevail on the western coast of Mexico. 

456. Hurricanes are violent storms, generally occurring in hot 
countries, in which the wind changes in a short time to every point 
of the compass, destroying every thing within its reach. 

445. How does the air press on our bodies 446. What do we find is the state 
of the air in rising above the level of the sea.’ What effect has this on our 
bodies? 447. How is a traveller affected on a very high mountain? 448. What 
is said of those who live in very high countries ? 449 . What do we learn from 
this? 'W» 450. Wliat is wind? 451. How is it produced? 452. What are 
land and sea breezes ? 453. How does the air move in the Torrid Zone ? 

454 . Where do the trade winds blow, and how are they produced ? 455 . What 
are the monsoons ? 456 . What are hurricanes ? 



124 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


In a gentle breeze, the air moves 6 miles an hour 3 in a storm, 50 miles} 
and in a hurricane, 100 . 

457. Whirlwinds are formed by opposite winds meeting and mov¬ 
ing swiftly in a circle, raising sand and light bodies into the air. 

In the deserts of Africa, they sometimes draw up the sand, as we have be¬ 
fore seen, (11 298,) into a moving pillar, which buries all in its way. 

458. When whirlwinds take place on the ocean, they draw up the 
water, and produce waterspouts. 

459. In the deserts of Africa and Arabia, a hot wind prevails, 
called the samiel or simoom, which is said sometimes to produce 
instant death. It can be avoided only by lying on the ground. 

460. In the southern countries of Europe, a warm wind blows 
from Africa, called the sirocco, which causes uneasiness and weak¬ 
ness. 

RAIN. 

461. Water continually rises in vapor from the land and the sea. 
This is called evaporation. When vapor is condensed (thickened) 
near the earth, so that it becomes visible, like steam, it forms a mist 
ovfog. 

462. A fog or mist rising into the air is called a clovd; and when 
it is more condensed, it becomes water or ice, and falls in rain, snow, 
or hail. 

463. Snow consists of such vapors as are frozen while the particles 
are small. It is rarely seen in lower latitudes (or nearer the equator) 
than 30'^ in America, and 36° on the eastern continent. 

464. Hail consists of little balls of ice, and is formed of rain-drops, 
frozen while they are falling. It is scarcely ever known in latitudes 
higher (or farther from the equator) than 60°. 

465. The vapors which arise from the earth do not ascend above a 
certain height ; and above this, neither rain nor snow is known. The 
ordinary height of clouds does not exceed one or two miles. 

466. Various quantities of rain fall in different parts of the earth, 
according to the climate and situation. The quantity of rain and 
snow is greatest on mountains, and they contain the principal sources 
of rivers. Islands, and places near the ocean, are of course more 
subject to rains and moisture than the interior of a country, because 
there is more vapor in the air. 

467. The quantity of rain also varies with the latitude. In the 
Torrid Zone, the evaporation is most abundant, on account of the heat, 
and the greatest quantity of rain falls on this portion of the earth. 
But it descends in one season of the year, and for the rest of the year 
there is little or no rain. 

468. From this circumstance, the number of raimj days is smallest 

How fast does the wind move ? 457. What are whirlwinds ? What do they 
cause in deserts? 458. What in the sea? 459. What is the simoom? 460. What 
is the sirocco ? H, 461. What is vapor ? What is a fog ? 462. A cloud ? 
463. What is snow ? How near to the equator is snow found ? 464. What is 
hail? 465. To what height do clouds rise, generally? 466. Where does the 
greatest quantity of rain fall ? 467. IIow is the quantity in the Torrid Zone ? 
468. What is the proportion of rainy days ? 



TEMPERATURE. 125 

in the Torrid Zone, and increases in proportion to the distance from 
the equator. 

From north latitude 12° to 43°, the average number of rainy days in the 
year has been estimated to be 783 irom 43'^ to 4b°, 1083 from 46° to 50°, 
1343 and from 50° to 60°, 161. 

46D. The rainy season in the Torrid Zone is during the summer, 
when the sun raises the greatest quantity of vapor 3 and of course it 
varies with this season on each side of the equator. 

470. Tuimder-storrns are most violent in the Torrid Zone. They 
are unknown in regions near the poles. It never thunders in Green¬ 
land, nor in Hudson’s Bay. 

471. In the Temperate Zones, thunder-storms are more frequent and 
violent, in proportion as the climate is warmer. 

472. There are some countries where it scarcely ever rains; as 
Egypt, Lower Peru, and Chili, and several countries of Africa and 
Asia. Tueu are watered entirely by mountain streams, and by very 
heavy dews. 

TEMPERATURE. 

473. Temperature is heat or cold, and is measured in degrees by a 
thermometer. On Fahrenheit's thermometer, (which we use,) 32“ is 
the point at which water freezes; 212 “ is the point at which water 
boils ; and 96“ is about the heat of our blood. 

Below 45°, it seems to most persons in a temperate climate cold ; at 60°, 
we call it temperate 5 at 70°, warm ; and at 80°, hot. At 90*^, it is very hot; 
and at 0°, or zero, it is extremely cold. 

In hot climates, the people find it cold at 70°. The teeth of Africans in 
the West Indies chatter at 50° or 60° 3 and they do not feel it warm until 
the thermometer is above 80° 3 or, in some hot countries, above 90°. 

474. The mean annual temperature is the average temperature of 
the air throughout the year, and shows us whether heat or cold pre¬ 
vails most. 

475. The mean annual temperature is greatest near the equator, 
and diminishes as we go from it either North or South. The temper¬ 
ature of a place depends therefore chiefly on its latitude ; but it varies 
also according to the situation and soil of countries, and their height 
above the level of the sea. 

476. IVhen the rays of the sun fall upon the sea, they penetrate into 
it, and heat all parts nearly alike according to their latitude, and the 
water circulates from top to bottom, and from one zone to another. 

477. Heat also causes vapor to arise from water, and the quantity 

469. When is the rainy season in the Torrid Zone I 470. Where are thunder¬ 
storms most violentWhere unknown 471. How are they in the Temperate 
Zones I 472. In what countries does it seldom rain I What is the average 
quantity of rain in different latitudes? T- 473. What is temperature? How 
and on what is it measured ? What are the freezing and boiling points, and that 
of blood-heat, on Fahrenheit’s thermometer? What degrees are cold, temperate, 
warm, or hot, in temperate climates? 474. What is the mean annual tempera¬ 
ture ? 475. Where is it the greatest ? On what does the temperature of a place 
depend? 476. What effect have the rays of the sun on the sea? 477. What 
does heat cause to arise from water? What effect has this when the air is hot? 




126 


> PHYSICAL, GEOGRAPHY. 


of vapor is greatest over the sea. Jn the hot season, or in the heat of 
the day, this vapor carries off a part of the heat, and renders the sea 
cooler than the land. In winter, or at night, the vapor is condensed 
in fog, dew, rain or snow, and gives out a part of its heat, which 
renders the sea then wanner than the land.' 

478. Hence the temperature of the sea is more regular than that of 
the land, and the changes of temperature are less. The w^inters and 
the nights are less cold, and the sammers and the days less warm, 
than on the land. 

479. Wet countries, or those which have a moist climate, are w^arrner in 
winter, and cooler in summer, than those which are dry, because 
there is more evaporation, 'rkus islands and countries near the sea, 
like England, which aie always moist, also have a more regular 
temperature than inland, or continental countries, like Russia, which 
are more dry. 

480. The more regular and moist climate of countries near the sea, 
is called a maritime climate ; and the dry, inland climate, of excessive 
hea"t and cold, is called a continental climate. 

Maritime is from the Latin maritimus, belonging to the sea. 

481. Countries covered with forests are more sheltered from the sun 
and winds, and therefore more moist, than open grounds; and for 
the same reasons, they have cooler summers and warmer winters. 

482. Dry countries, and especially those which are covered with 
rocks and sand, are most heated by the sun, and therefore have the 
hottest days and the hottest summers. In the Torrid Zone, dry 
countries are generally deserts; as in many parts of Asia and Africa. 

483. But dry and sandy countries also lose their heat most quickly, 
when the sun does not shine upon them ; and hence they are colder 
than others at night, and in winter. 

Even in the Sahara of Africa, in the Torrid Zone, water is sometimes 
frozen at night; and in the hot climate of India, water can be made to 
freeze at night, by means of evaporation. 

464. A level country, where every part is constantly exposed to the 
sun, is much hotter in the day and in the summer, than a hilly and 
mountainous country, where some parts are always in the shade. 

485. But level countries are swept in every part by the winds ; so 
that, in cold climates, the nights arid the icinters are more severe, and 
the storms often dangerous to travellers. 

486. We perceive, by the snows on the mountains, (IT 320,) that the 
heat diminishes as we rise above the level of the sea, as it does in going 
from the equator. 

What effect when it is cold ? 478. What is said of the temperature of the sea 
compared to that of the land ? 479. What is the effect of a wet country or 
moist climate t Of islands ? 480. What is a maritime climate ? A continen¬ 
tal ? 481. What weather have countries covered with forests at different sea¬ 
sons ? 489. Dry countries covered with rocks or sand ? What are these last 
in the Torrid Zone ? 483. What is said of the cooling of drj' and sandy countries ? 

484. How is the climate of a level country, compared to a hilly or mountainous 
one? 485. How are the nights and winters of such countries in cold climates? 
486 . What is the effect on the heat as we rise above the level of the sea ? 




REGIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 


127 


In ascending a mountain three miles high, even at the equator, we pass 
through every climate, and come at last to a region covered with perpetual 
snow, like the coldest parts of the Frigid Zones. 

487. Hence countries of different heights differ in their tempera¬ 
ture, even in the same zone. Some high countries of the Torrid Zone 
always have the coolness of spring; while others are never free 
from frost. 

488. High countries are generally dry also, and have fewer plants 
and trees than lowlands. Hence they have hot days and summers, 
and very cold nights and winters. (IF 482-3.) 

489. J'he temperature of countries also varies according to the winds 
which are most common. Thus, on the western coast of Europe, the 
winds are almost constantly from the South-West, or from warm 
regions; and that coast is much warmer tha.n the eastern coast of K. 
America, where the winds blow chiefly from the colder regions at 
the North. 

490. So, also, the S-W. winds render the western coast of JV*. America 
much warmer than the eastern coast of Asia. 

REGIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 

491. In order to show what countries on the earth have the same 
average or mean temperature, lines are drawn through those places 
which have the same temperature, which are called isothermal lines, 
as represented on the Isothermal Chart. 

Isothermal lines are lines of equal heat, — from the Greek i-sos, 
equal, and ther-me, heat. 

492. The isotheimial lines divide the earth's surface, according to 
temperature, into several parts, called regions, as represented on the 
Isothermal Chart. The Equatorial Region lies on each side of the 
equator, and the Hot, Warm, Temperate, Cold, Wintry, and Frozen 
Regions, on each side of this, towards the poles. 

493. But the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same 
region, for the reasons already given. (IT 128—129.) Thus the win¬ 
ters in JVorthern Italy, in tlie Warm Region, are as cold, on the average, 
as those in Scotland, in the Cold Region; and the summers in Russia, 
in the Cold Region, are as warm as those in France, in the Temperate 
Region, on account of the different situation of these countries. 

494. In judging of the climate of countries, we must therefore con¬ 
sider their elevation, surface, soil, and situation, and the winds to 
which tliey are exposed. 

487. IIow are countries of different heights in the same zone ? How are high 
countries in the Torrid Zone ? 488. How are high countries as to dryness and 
plants J As to days and nights ? 489. How else does the temperature of countries 
vary ? How on the VV. coast of Europe, compared with the E. coast of N. Ameri¬ 
ca.^ 490. Western of N. America and eastern of Asia? R, T. 491. What do 
isothermal lines show ? Where are they represented? 492. How do they divide 
the zones? Where is the Equatorial Region? What regions on each side of 
this, and in what order? 493. What can you say of the seasons of different 
countries? Give some examples. 494. How can we judge of the climate of 
countries ? 



128 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


PLANTS. 

495. There is an immense variety in the plants of the earth. Very 
few plants will grow in all countries; but nearly every portion is 
supplied with some, which support men and animals. 

Some belong to mountains, and others to lowlands 5 some to water, 
others to moist regions, and others to rocks and sand 5 while some grow 
only in caverns and mines, on the bed of the sea, or in the snow. 

496. The most important plants are those which are used for food, 

by men and the inferior animals, as the grasses, grains, fruits, and 
roots; and almost every climate and country has some of these which 
are suited to it. ^ 

497. Other plants — such as hemp, flax, and cotton — supply us tcith 
materials for clothing; and plants of this sort areftnmd in all parts of 
the world, except the Frigid Zone, where men find it necessary to 
clothe themselves with furs. 

498. Plants of another class — such as indigo and logwood — fur¬ 
nish us with colors for dyeing and staining ; and the trees of the forest 
supply us with pine, oak, mahogany, and other kinds of wood, for 
buildings, for furniture, and fuel. 

4i)9. Even most of those plants which are poisonous^ (or which 
produce disease when taken in large quantities) are found useful, in 
small quantities, as medicines for the sick. 

500. A small number of plants are found onhj in their native 
country., like the Peruvian bark tree in S. America; but the seeds of 
most of those that are useful have been scattered, by the winds and 
waters, or by commerce, into all countries which have a climate and 
soil suited to them. 

501. The geographical situation of plants depends therefore chiefly 
on the climate and soil of countries; and they may be described witn 
the regions in which they are found. 

502. Plants are most abundant in the warmest parts of the earth. 
One half of those which are known belong to the Torrid Zone; and a 
large part of these belong to .America. Of more than 100,000 plants 
now known, the Frigid Zones have only a few' hundreds. 

CLIMATES AND PRODUCTIONS. 

503. The continents are divided., by the isothermal lines., according to 
the climate, into regions, each of which includes those countries 

P, 495. What can you say of the plants of the earth I 496. What are the most 
important plants ? 497. Mention some others, and their uses. Are such plants 
found in all parts of the world I How are the inhabitants of the Frigid Zone 
clothed ? 498. What other class of plants ? Of what use are the forest trees I 

499. What can you say of the poisonous plants? 500. Are any plants found only 
in their native country? What is said of the most useful kinds in this respect? 
501. On what does the geographical situation of plants depend ? How may 
they be described ? 502. Where are plants most abundant ? How many are 

found in the Torrid Zone ? Where do most of these belong ? How many plants 
now known ? What proportion belong to the Frigid Zones? 



CLIiVIATES AND PRODUCTIONS. 


129 


whose climate and plants are nearly the same. The lines are marked 
on the Isothermal Chart, and the names of the countries may be learned 
from other maps, or the Moral and Political Chart. 

5U4. The Limit or boundary of a pLant^ means that line beyond 
which it will not grow. On the middle of the chart are the names of 
the most important plants, whicli are found on both continents. The 
lines running from each show to what regions they extend. On the 
continents, are the names of plants which are peculiar to each. 

Q,UESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

503. How are the continents divided by the isothermal lines ? Point 
to the eastern continent. The western. Which is S. America? N. 
America ? Africa ? Europe ? Asia ? Point to the U. States. Mexico. 
Canada. The countries of S. America. Europe. Asia. Al'rica. 

Through what countries does the equator pass ? What part of the 
eastern continent lies North of it? What of the western ? What parts of 
each lie S. of the equator ? What other lines are drawn on the Chart? 

504. What is meant by the limit of a plant ? What is said in the 
note at the top of the chart ? Examine the lines, and mention the most 
important plants which grow near the equator. How far North and South 
do pepper and other spices grow ? How far do the pine-apple and other 
delicate fruits grow ? Of what plants are those isothermal lines the limits, 
which are drawn next to the equator, on each side ? How is the region 
which lies between these lines named on the chart ? How is it colored ? 

EQUATORIAL REGION. 

505. The Equatorial, or Torrid Region, occupies the greater part of 
the Torrid Zone. It is the only part of the earth which is sufficiently 
hot to produce the finest spices, and the most fragrant gums, such as 
myrrh and incense. It also produces the finest fruits, the most beau¬ 
tiful plants and flowers, and the largest and loftiest trees. 

505. The trees which bear the plantain, the banana, and the bread 
fruit, and the palm-tree, which yields the sap of which sago is made, 
supply a large part of the food of the inhabitants of this region. These 
products, loith the roots of the yam, tlie cassava, and the arrow-plant, 
and rice, maize, and millet, are chiefly used instead of bread. 

5 U7. In the level countries of this region, frost and snow are un¬ 
known, and the trees are covered with perpetual verdure. During 
some parts of the year, the climate is the most delightful on earth. 
At other seasons, the heat is distressing, and water is often scarce. 

In the highlands of this region, which are 8,000 feet above the level 
of the sea° we find a temperate climate, and the grain and other 
productions of the Temperate Regions. (See TT 485.) 

508. The Equatorial Region has generally two seasons; the wet 
season, when the rains are constant; and the dry, when rain seldom 
falls. Some places have two of each in a year. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

How far North and South of the equator does the Equatorial Region 
extend ? What countries of America does it contain ? What of Africa ? 
Of Asia ? Is any part of Europe in this region ? 505. What can you say 
of the Equatorial Region ? What does it produce ? 506. What trees 


130 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


furnish food to the inhabitants ? What is used in place of bread 1 507. In 
M’hat zone is this region 1 What climate has it ? 508. What seasons ? 
What spices do you hnd in this region, which grow on both continents ? 
What in Asia only % What fruits do yon find ? What kinds of grain ? 
Does wheat grow in this region 1 .{See the note at the t(^ of the chart, 
and IT 507.) What peculiar productions, in this region, in South America ? 

Which of the plants of the Equatorial Region grow in other regions ? 
How far North do the sugar-cane and coffee grow 1 What line of tem¬ 
perature is there here ? What region lies between the limit of spices and 
that of the sugar-cane 1 How is it colored 1 

HOT REGIONS. 

609. The Hot Regions have nearly the same climate with the 
Equatorial Region j but they will not produce the finest spices and 
fruits, and the trees are stripped of their leaves for a few months, in 
the northern parts. These regions terminate where snow falls upon 
the plains, and where the sugar-cane ceases to grow. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

609. What can you say of the Hot Regions ? Where do they terminate ? 
What countries of North America are in the Northern Hot Region ? 
What of Africa? What of Europe ? Of Asia ? Do these countries have 
any snow on the plains ? What are the most important plants, put down 
as belonging to these countries ? What grains grow here, that do not grow 
in the Equatorial Regions ? Does wheat extend into the Hot and Equa¬ 
torial regions ? {See the note at the top of the chart.) What countries do 
you find in this region South of the equator ? What peculiar productions 
in S. America ? What in China ? 

To what line of temperature do rice and cotton flourish ? What is the 
region called, between the limits of coffee and cotton 1 

WARM REGIONS. 

510. hi the Warm Regions., the climate is mild, and the winters are 
rather damp than cold. Snow is rare, and the waters are seldom 
frozen. The summers are very dry ; and the heat is then constant 
and oppressive. 

This region produces some of the more delicate fruits, as the olive, fig, 
orange, ike.; and plants grow the greater part of the year. 

511. Rice, maize, and in some countries wheat, are the principal 
bread stuffs. Pastures are generally scorched by the heat} and it is 
only on the mountains or the marshes, that they are rich and 
abundant. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

How is the Northern Warm Region colored on the chart? What part 
of North America is in it? What countries in Europe ? Of Asia? Of 
Africa? Of S. America? 510. What is the climate of the countries in 
the Warm Regions t What can you say of the winter ? Of the summer ? 
How long do plants grow ? What plants of the Hot Regions grow here ? 
What grain and fruits, which do not flourish nearer the equator? 511. 
What are used as bread ? What can you say of the pastures ? What 
prden vegetables ? What trees ? What peculiar tree in Spain, and how 
far South does it extend? What in China and Japan? Does the wine 
grape grow in this region on the eastern continent ? ~ , 


, PLANTS OF WARM COUNTRIES 




Tobacco. 



Sugar-Cane. 






Cocoa-Nut. 




Clove. 



Bread-Fruit 


Banana. 




Pimento or Allspice. 



Tamarind, 








132 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


(The wine grape Jlourishes best in thus region in Europe, but it has not yet 
been found tojiounsh so well in the United States.) 

Wliut name is given to the region between the limit of cotton and that 
of the wine grape 1 How is it colored on the chart ? 

TEMPERATE REGIONS. 

512. The Temperate Regions have a temperate climate through the 
greater part of the year. Here we first find the regular succession of 
seasons, — spring, summer, autumn, and winter, — and an equal 
proportion of cold and heat. 

These regions produce the most nourishing kinds of grain, as wheat, 
rye, &c., in perfection, and most kinds of useful vegetables and fruits 
in abundance. 

513. In the Temperate and Cold Regions,*we find the beautiful 
fields of grass, and the rich verdure in summer, which are scarcely 
seen in the hot season, in the warmer regions. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

What parts of N. America lie in the Temperate Region ? What 
countries of Europe ? Of Asia ? 512. Describe the general climate of 
the countries in the Temperate Region. The seasons. The productions. 
Do they produce all the plants of the Warm Regions ? What kind of 
grain ? What fruits and trees are the principal ? What peculiar tree in 
W. America, in place of the sugar-cane 1 Does the wine grape grow 
farther from the equator ? What part of S. America is in this region ? 
513. What can you say of the grass and verdure ? 

COLD REGIONS. 

514. The Cold Regions lie next to the Temperate. The winters 
are long and severely cold. The change from winter to summer is 
sudden, and the summer is often very hot. They do not produce the 
wine grape, or the peach, and wheat is raised with difficulty; but 
the pastures are rich, and rye, oats, and barley, can be cultivated. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

514. What region lies next to the N. Temperate ? How is it colored ? 
What line of temperature bounds it on the north ? What parts of 
Worth America are in it? What of Europe? Of Asia? Which are the 
most northern countries in it ? Wliat is the climate ? What are the 
seasons ? The chief productions ? The principal fruits ? What grains ? 
What trees ? What country S. of the equator is in the Southern Cold 
Region ? What grain or corn does not grow beyond the limits of this 
region ? What trees and fruits ? What vegetables ? What is the region 
beyond this line called ? How is it colored ? 

WINTRY REGIONS. 

515. The Wintry Region is severely cold during the greater part 
of the year. The summer is very short, and the heat ollen intense 
during the day, which is sixteen hours long. 

Jt produces no grain but rye, barley, and oats. The oak will not 
grow here ; and the forests are chiefly composed of evergreens, such 
as the pine and the fir. 


ANIMALS. 


133 


Q,UESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

To what line of temperature does the Northern Wintry Region extend 7 
What countries are in this region ? 515. What is the climate 7 What 
grain does it produce 7 What trees 7 What fruits 7 

FROZEN REGIONS. 

516. In the JYorthern Frozen Region., which is the only one in¬ 
habited, there are but two seasons; a long winter of extreme cold, 
and a short summer of great heat, (on account of the length of the 
days,) without spring or autumn. Ice continues through the year. 

Vegetation is scanty, and chiefly confined to the South side of the 
hills; and it is generally impossible to cultivate the earth. Moss is 
the food of the cattle ; and berries almost the only vegetable for the 
use of man. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ON THE ISOTRERMAL CHART. 

Where is the Northern Frozen Region ? What parts of N. America are 
in it 7 What parts of Europe and Asia 7 516. What seasons has this 
region 7 What can you say of the vegetation 7 What plants do you find 
in it on the chart 7 

(III.) CROSS QUESTIONS. 

In what region and country is the matte, a plant resembling tea, found 7 
In what region do we find the tea plant 7 Cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs 7 
The sugar-maple 7 The Peruvian bark 7 The cork-oak 7 The cocoa-nut 7 
The Indian-rubber, or gum elastic tree 7 

In which region will wheat grow 7 Sugar-cane 7 Apples 7 Rye 7 
Indian corn 7 Rice 7 Cotton 7 Tobacco 7 Wine grape 7 Flax 7 Oak 7 
Pear 7 Plum and cherry 7 Oats 7 Barley 7 Coffee 7 Potato 7 Turnip 7 
Yam, cocoa-nut, and tamarind 7 Orange, lemon, fig, olive, and almond 7 
Pine-apple, banana, &.c. 7 Pine, fir, and willow 7 Pepper, spices, 
gums, &c. 7 Mahogany, dye-woods, and precious gum trees 7 Where 
does the palm tree flourish 7 Iron wood 7 In how many regions will 
currants and berries thrive 7 Cedar 7 Willow 7 Fir 7 

Which region contains the greatest variety of plants 7 Which the least 
variety 7 What parts of the Equatorial and Hot Regions have the climate 
of the Temperate Regions 7 (TI486.) Do their productions resemble those 
of the Temperate Regions 7 

ANIMALS. 

517. The animals of the earth may be divided into two great classes, 
the tame or domestic, and wild animals. 

518. Domestic animals are chiefly used for food, or as beasts of 
burden and draft. Some wild animals are important to man for food; 
and many, on account of their fur, skin, down, or oil. Others are 
dangerous to man, as beasts of prey, serpents, &c.; and others still 
very troublesome, as many small animals and insects. 

519. By the kindness of Providence, the most useful domestic 
animals., the horse, the ox, the cow, the sheep, the cat, and the dog, are 
found in all latitudes, as far as the Frozen Regions. 

517. Are the animals of the earth the same in all zones 1 How may they be 
divided ? 518. How is each kind useful to us ? 519. Where are the most useful 
domestic animals found.’ 



134 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


520. Among wild animals^ the goat, the deer, the rabbit, the squirrel, 
the rat, the mouse, the bear, and the wolf, are found in all latitudes, 
and in almost all countries where man can live. 

521. Must other animals are distributed in various countries, 
according to the climate, the soil, and the productions on which they 
feed. They are not usually confined, like plants, to a particular region; 
but the same classes are generally found throughout a whole zone. 

On the Chart of Climates are delineated the most remarkable 
animals, arranged according to zones, and not according to regions, 
with some which are peculiar to particular countries. Those above 
mentioned, which are found universally, are generally omitted. 

The engravings on the opposite page represent the principal animals of 
the earth, in their proportionate size, as follows: 1. Elephant j 2. Rhinoceros} 
3. Hippopotamus } 4. Camelopard or Giraffe } 5. Horse } 6. Lion } 7. Tiger} 
8 Deer} 9. Sheep} 10. Llama} 11. Antelope} 12. Wolf} 13. Dog} 
14. Hyena} 15. Fox } 16. Cat} 17. Rabbit} 18. Mouse. 

EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

What regions lie nearest the equator ? In what zone are they ? What 
regions between the limit of the Tropical and the Frozen Regions ? In 
what zone are they ? What is the climate of the countries nearest the 
equator? (11507.) What of those within the limits of the Frozen Re¬ 
gion ? (If 516.) Are the countries which lie between extremely hot, or 
extremely cold ? (U 512.) In what zone do these countries lie ? 

TORRID ZONE. 

522. The Equatorial and Hot Regions, lying chiefly in the Torrid 
Zone, abound with animals; and we find here the largest and most 
beautiful, as well as the fiercest and most dangerous, 

523. The Torrid Zone is distinguished for the huge size of some 
of its animals. The elephant, the hippopotamus, and the camelopard, 
are from 10 to 15 feet in height. The great boa serpent, or anaconda, 
is sometimes 30 feet in length. The ostrich, the cassowary, and the 
condor, are birds as large and as strong as many quadrupeds. 

524. Here also we find the most beautiful animals. The antelope, 
the leopard, the zebra, and otlier animals of this zone, are remarkable 
for the beauty of their forms and motions. The numerous birds are 
adorned with the richest plumage; and the feathers of the ostrich and 
the bird of paradise are used as the ornaments of kings and queens. 

52.5. It is only in these regions that we find the most ferocious of 
the beasts of prey — the lion, the tiger, the leopard, and the hyena, of 
the Eastern Continent; and the puma or cougar, and jagtiar — the 
lion and tiger of America. 

526. Serpents and reptiles are, in this zone, most numerous and 
poisonous. The anaconda crushes large animals by winding himself 
around them. The asp and the viper are peculiarly poisonous; and 
the venomous scorpion is often found in the houses and beds of the 
inhabitants. 

520 . What wild animals are found in all latitudes ? 521 . How are most other 
animals distributed ? 522 . What can you say of the Equatorial and Hot Regions r 
523 . What is the size of animals in the Torrid Zone ? 524 . Are there any beautiful 
animals there ? 525 . What can you say of the beasts of prey ? 526 . What can 
you say of the serpents and reptiles ? 




(7y) Comparative size of the principal Quadrupeds of the Earth, 





















136 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


527. The air of these regions is frequently so clouded with insects^ 
that the traveller swallows them with his food. Many of these sting 
in a painful manner; and the locusts and jiies often assemble in such 
numbers, as to devour the grain and vegetables of whole countries. 
At night, the forests are illuminated with Jire files; and by day, they 
are enlivened by the various tribes of monkeys peculiar to these 
regions. The orang-outang, which resembles man in his appearance, 
is" only found in a lew of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, or 
Malaysia, and in some parts of Africa. 

52ri. The tropical seas abound with fish of the most beautiful 
colors. The flying fish here skims tlirough the air. The shark is as 
ferocious as a beast of prey. The shell fish are larger and finer than 
in the colder regions; and it is here chiefly, on the coasts of India 
and America, that the pearl oyster is found, from which the pearl is 
obtained. 

529. The horse, the ass, the mule, and the ox, are found in these 
regions; but the principal beasts of burden^ on the Eastern Continent^ 
are the elephant and the camel. The elephant is much valued for its 
docility and strength, and is often used in hunting and war. I'he 
camel is provided with a distinct stomach, to contain water; and is 
the only animal which can carry burdens over the deserts of Africa 
and Arabia. In S. America, the llama and the vicuna are small 
animals, peculiarly fitted to carry burdens over the rugged mountain 
roads of that country. 

EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

Examine the Chart of Climates, and mention the live largest animals 
found in Africa and Asia. In what regions are they found ? What is 
tlieir size ? What large serpent ? What large bird ? What beasts of 
prey in the Equatorial and Hot Regions ? What other animals do you find 7 
Which are among the most beautiful of these ? ( 7'he ibis and the ichneu¬ 

mon were worshipped by the Egyptians. The ichneumon is a reptile very 
useful in destroying the eggs of the crocodile.) What are the largest 
animals in S. America, in this region 7 What is the largest bird 7 What 
beasts of prey are there here 7 What beasts of burden 7 What animals 
are found wild in herds 7 

TEMPERATE ZONE, 

530. In going from the Torrid Zone towards the poles, we find the 
animals smaller, less numerous, and less ferocious. 

No land animal, now living in the North of the tropic, is as large 
as the elephant. The wolf the becir, the panther, and the catamount, 
or cougar N. America, are the principal beasts of prey; and the 
grisly bear of Missouri is the only one that resembles the lion and 
the tiger in strength and ferocity. The lynx, a small and beautiful 
beast of prey, is sometimes taught to hunt the deer, as in S. Africa. _ 

The skeleton of the mammoth, found in the United States, proves 
that animals much larger tlian the elephant formerly existed in this 
zone, in America. 

527. Of the insects.^ 528. Of the fish? 529. What are the principal beasts of 
burden? What in S. America? T. Za 530. How do we find the animals, in 
going towards the pole? Is there any animal as large as the elephant? What 
beasts of prey are there ? 



ANIMALS. 


137 


^31. Reptiles and serpents also gradually diminish in numoer and 
venom, as we go towards the poles, until they disappear entirely in 
the Frozen Regions. 

532. la the Warm Regions^ the insects are also very troublesome. In 
countries nearer the poles, they are killed by the frosts of winter; but 
even there, they are very troublesome in the hottest season, and in 
marshy regions. 

533. The birds of the Temperate Zone are inferior in size and beauty 
to those of the Torrid Zone ; but they sing more sweetly. 

534. The horse and the ox come to their perfection, and are the 
most useful beasts of burden, in the Temperate and Cold Regions; 
and the ass and the mule in the Warm Regions. The camel is used 
in some countries, the limits of the Frozen Regions, these animals 
either cannot endure the cold, or do not find sufficient grass and grain 
for food; and the reindeer, which lives on moss, and the dog, which 
feeds on fish, take their place. 

la South Africa, the buffalo is used for riding and drawing carriages, like 
a horse. In Tibet, there is a peculiar species of the buffalo, called the 
yak, or grunting ox. 

535. In those regions where the winters are severe, we first find the 
heaver, the otter, and other animals, whose warm furs are useful to 
defend us from the cold. 

In Norway and Sweden, the lemings, or Norway rats, travel in large 
bodies in search of food. The glutton is a lazy animal, which often drops 
from a tree upon a deer, and devours his flesh as he runs. 

EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

What beasts of burden do you find on the Chart of Climates, in the 
Temperate Zone in Europe and Asia ? What beasts of prey ? Which is 
the most fierce 1 What furred animals ? What others ? What wild 
animals in herds ? Do you find the monkey here ? In what country do 
you find the camel ? What beasts of prey in the Temperate Zone, in 
America ? What furred animals ? What wild animals in herds ? Which 
animal appears to be the largest ? Are there many poisonous reptiles and 
serpents in this region ? What can you say of the insects ? How are the 
birds ? What beasts of burden are used in the various regions of the 
Temperate Zone ? 


OCEANIGA. 

536. The animals of New Holland are unlike those found in other 
parts of the world. The swans are black, while those of other parts 
of the world are white. The kangaroo leaps on its hind legs like a 
bird. One species of the opossum flies from tree to tree; and another 
quadruped has a bill like a duck. 

537. In the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the dog and the hog are 
almost the only animals. Both are used for food. 

FROZEN REGIONS. 

538. In the Frozen Regions, we find so few plants, that the animals 

531. What can you say of reptiles and serpents? 532. Of insects? 533. Of 
birds? 534. Of beasts of burden? 535. What furred animals are there? 
O. 536. What can you say of the animals of New Holland ? 537. Of the islands 
of the Pacific Ocean ? P, It> 538. How are plants in the frozen regions ? 




138 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


of more temperate climates cannot subsist there. But we find the rein¬ 
deer.^ the sable, the erviine, protected from the cold by a rich covering 
of fur, which is here an important comfort and luxury to man. In 
approaching nearer the pole, both animal and vegetable life seem 
almost extinct. The fierce white bear roams undisturbed over these 
regions of frost, and frequently passes from one country to another 
on the floating ice. The polar fox advances still farther North. 

539. But the ocean, from its milder temperature, supports vast 
numbers of animals. The polar seas swarm with herring and other 
s-niall Jish, which are of the utmost value to the inhabitants of these 
barren regions. Codfish are chiefly obtained on the coast of New¬ 
foundland ; and herring on the western coast of Europe. 

540. The Polar seas also abound with seals and sea otters. The 
great icalrus, or sea-horse, is found in herds upon the ice ; and the 
ichale, the monarch of the ocean, makes this his chosen resort. The 
seal, the walrus, and the whale, are all covered with a thick coat of 
fat, which protects them from the cold; and thus they furnish oil, 
which serves the natives of those dark and frozen regions for light, 
and fuel, and food. The fur of the seal is also valuable, and the seal 
fisheries (carried on chiefly for the skins) employ great numbers of 
ships in the Greenland Seas, around Cape Horn, and also on the 
north-west coast of America. 

541. The birds of these regions assume a softer covering, and the 
down of the eider-diick, and other birds, is an important article of com¬ 
merce. On some of the islands of these seas, the wild fowl and their 
eggs are the chief support of the inhabitants. 

542. In the Northern Wintry and Frozen Regions, the ordinary 
beasts of burden of the Temperate Zone become small and stunted, or 
fail entirely, for want of food. The reindeer and the dog are used 
in their stead. 

543. The reindeer, of all known quadrupeds, has its range nearest 
to the pole. Within these limits only, it finds the moss adapted for 
its food. This animal not only serves as a beast of burden, but sup¬ 
plies the. natives of these northern regions with most of their food 
from its milk and flesh; while the skin furnishes much of their 
clothing, and the sinews their thread. 

EXERCISES ON THE ISOTHERMAL CHART. 

Look on the Isothermal Chart, and mention what vegetables you find 
in the Frozen Regions, What is the climate ? Can animals which feed 
on grass and grain live here in great numbers ? What beasts of burden do 
you find in this region in Europe and Asia ? (in America the dog is chiefly 
used.) What beasts of prey are there here? Which is the largest?- 
What other animals ? What are those numbered 5, 6, and 8, which are 
also found here ? What are the uses of these animals ? What animals are* 
delineated on the ocean? (The xohale lives wholly in the ocean. The 
walrus and the seal live partly in the ocean, and partly on the land.) Wfiat 
are the uses of these animals ? What can you say of the birds in this 
region ? What of the reindeer ? 

What land animals are found here What do we find nearer the pole? 
539. What fish do we find in the ocean ? 540. What other animals ? What 
valuable products do they furnish ? 541. What can you say of the birds of these 
regions ? 542. What beasts of burden do we find in these regions ? 543. What 
can you say of the reindeer ? 



MAN. 


139 


III * CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 


MAN. 

544. In natural history -, man is placed at the head of the animal creation, 
and surpasses them all by his erect position, the perfection of his body, and 
the power of speech. 

545. Most animals are confined to one climate, and to one kind of food 
and life. Ma7i is made capable of enduring all climates, of living on every 
kind of food, and performing every kind of labor. 

546. But man is superior especially, in having reason and conscience, 
and a soul which will live forever. He is thus enabled to govern all other 
animals, to provide for his own wants, and to know and serve his Creator. 

547. Men differ in their form and color, like inferior animals of one and 
the same race. They differ still more in their language, religion, customs^ 
knowledge, and state of civilization. 


RACES OF MEN. 



(79) Races of Men. 


1 European. 2 African. 3 Asiatic. 4 American. 5 Oceanic. 

548. There are five principal races of men, differing from each other in 
color and form. They are called — the European, the Asiatic, the African, 


C G 544. What place does man hold in natural history ? How does he sur- 
nass thranimal creation ? 545. What can you say of most animals ? Of what is 
man made capable ? 546. How is man especially superior to animals ? 547. How 
do men differ in form and color? In what respects do tlmy differ still njore. 

548 , How do the five principal races of men differ from each other? 

Name the races. 


* Civil Geography is designed for the third course of study. 










140 


CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 


the Oceanic, and the American races, from the grand divisions of the earth 
which they chiefly inhabit. 

649. The European or Caucasian race are distinguished by an oval or 
round head, oval face, long and often light hair, and, generally, by a light 
complexion, and regular forms and features. The Arabs, and some other 
nations of this race, have dark complexions. 

650. The Asiatic or Mongolian race have a yellow or brown color, 
straight, coarse, black hair, small eyes set obliquely, a broad nose, and 
flat face, 

551. The African race are generally black, with short, woolly hair, flat 
noses, and thick lips. 

552. The Oceanic or Malay race resemble the .Asiatic race ; but are of 
a deeper color. Some tribes in Australia are more like the African race 5 
but most of them have better forms and features than either of these 
races. 

553. The Anurican or Indian race are of a reddish brown or copper 
color, with straight black hair, and high cheek bones 5 and often have 
better forms and features tlian any except the European race. 

654. But the appearance of men of the same race is often very difterent. 
We find people of the Oceanic, American, and Asiatic races, who resemble 
Europeans ; and sometimes even Africans have the same form and features. 
We also find some Europeans who have the appearance of tlie other races. 

665. 2'he Scriptures inform us, that all these races are children of the 
same first parents, and brethren of the same family. The difference 
between them has been produced, like that w e see in the race of horses, 
dogs, and many other animals, in part by the difference of climate, and in 
part in other w'ays which are now unknown to us, 

556. More than three fourths of the inhabitants of the world are of the 
European and Asiatic races, which are nearly equal in number. The 
African race is next to these in number; and the American race is less 
numerous than the Oceanic. 

557. The American race are found only in America, and have never left 
that continent. The Malay race inhabit Malacca, and the islands scattered 
through the Indian and Pacific Oceans, from Madagascar to the coasts of 
America; and are therefore entitled to the name of the Oceanic race. 

558. The Eastern continent is divided between the three remaining races. 
Tie Asiatic race occupy the north-eastern part of the continent, from 


From what do they derive their names ? 549. By what are the European race 
distinguished.? 550. The Asiatic race .? 551. The African race .? 552. What can 
you say of the Malay race ? Of some in Australia.? 553. The American or Indian 
race? 554. What is said of the appearance of the same race ? Give some exam¬ 
ples. 555. What do the Scriptures inform us respecting these races ? How has 
the difference between them been produced? 556. How many inhabitants of 
the world does the European race comprise? The Asiatic? The African? 
The American ? Give the probable number of each race. 557. Where do w'e find 
the American race ? The Oceanic or Malay ? What may these be called ? 
558. Where are the three remaining races ? What part of the Eastern Continent 
does the Asiatic race occupy ? 



NATIONS AND LANGUAGES. 


141 


Malacca and the Gulf of Siam to the Caspian and White Seas j and the 
African race inhabit the south-western part, comprising the southern and 
middle portions of Africa. 

539. The European race occupy the belt between these divisions, ex¬ 
tending from the Bay of Bengal, over South-Western Asia, Northern 
Africa, and all Europe except the north-eastern corner. There, we find a 
small number of Laplanders, Samoiedes, and other tribes, who appear to 
belong to the Asiatic race. 

560. The European race have also gone in colonies to other parts of the 
world, and now inhabit the greater part of America, and extensive countries 
in Africa and Oceanica. 


NATIONS AND LANGUAGES. 

561. The races of men are divided into families and nations, distinguished 
by their languages. 

562. The European race forms one great family, comprising many 
nations, whose languages seem to have been formed from one primitive 
language. It includes the Hindoos, Persians, Arabians, and Europeans j 
and is called the Indo-European family. 

In Europe itself, the chief branches of this family are the Greek or Latin 
branch, comprising the Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, and 
French, whose languages all resemble the Latin j the German or Teutonic 
branch, comprising the Germans, Hollanders, English, Danes, Norwegians, 
and Swedes ; and the Sclavonic branch, comprising the Russians, and most 
other nations of Eastern Europe. 

563. The Asiatic race comprises the Chinese and Tartar families. The 
Chinese family embraces the Chinese, Japanese, and some neighboring 
nations, and contains one quarter of the inhabitants of the globe. 

.564. The Tartar family embraces the Tibetans, Mongolians, Mandshu- 
rians, Tartars, Turks, and a part of the Siberians. 

565. The langtuiges of almost all these nations are written, and many of 
them printed j so that they can be studied and understood by other reading 
nations. The same European letters are also understood by one half, and 
the Chinese characters by one quarter, of the inhabitants of the world. 

566. 77te African, Oceanic, and American races are divided into 
numerous families, with a great diversity of languages. Most of their 
langtuiges have been written only within a short period, by the efforts of 


The African ? 559. The European 1 What portion of the Asiatic race do we 
find in Europe ? 530. Where have the European race gone in colonies } What 
part of the world do they inhabit ? JST. Zj> 561. How are the races of men 
divided .<* 589. What can you say of the European race in this respect.^ What 
naitions does this family include.^ What is it called ? 563. What families does 
the Asiatic race comprise } What can you say of the Chinese family i How largo 
a part of the population of the globe docs it contain ? ,564. The Tartar family ? 
565. What can you say of the languages of almost all these nations By how large 
a portion of mankind are the European letters understood ? The Chinese 
characters 566. What can you say of the African, Oceanic, and American 
races ? Of most of their languages ? 



142 


CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 


Christian missionaries, and we know very little of them j but many are not 
yet reduced to writing. 


RELIGIONS. 

667. Trtie religion is worship and obedience to the true God, revealed 
in the Scriptures. But the loord religion is used in Geography to signify 
the reverence and worship paid by men to any thing which they believe to 
be more powerful than man. 

568. Almost all nations of the earth have some kind of religion; but 
where the Scriptures are unknown, it is always corrupt; and in many 
tribes, almost every man hajj his own god, and his own mode of worship. 

569. Revelation was first given to the Jews in the Old Testament, in 
which the Messiah was foretold. The Jews are still a separate people, 
scattered among all nations, who believe in the Old Testament only, and 
expect a Messiah yet to come. 

570. Christians are those who believe in Jesus Christ as the Messiah, 
and in the New Testament, as well as the Old. 

The ‘Christian religion requires not only love and obedience to the true 
God, but justice and kindness to all, and especially to the weak, the poor, 
and the stranger; and forbids all cruelty and revenge. 

571. There are three great divisions of Christians; Roman Catholics, 
Greeks, and Protestants. Each divisio7i has peculiar doctrines and modes 
of worship. 

572. Protestants are divided into various sects. The principal sects 
which differ in external forms are Lutherans, Reformed, Episcopalians, 
Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Methodists, and Friends or 
Quakers. 

Christian countries are distinguished upon the Chart of the World, in the 
Atlas belonging to this work, by a cross. 

573. Mahometans are those who believe in Mahomet, an impostor, in 
Arabia, who lived 600 years after Christ, and pretended to be inspired. 

574. He forbade idolatry, and the worship of many gods ; but he alloiced 
his followers to kill and persecute those of other religions, and to practise 
other crimes. 

Mahometan countries are distinguished on the Chart by a crescent, the 
standard of Mahomet. 

575. Pagans are those who believe in false gods; and, in difterent 
nations, worship the sun, stars, rivers, idols, or even beasts and insects. 


567. What is true religion t How is the word religion used in Geography ? 
568. What can you say of almost all nations of the earth as to religion i What 
is the state of religion where the Scriptures are unknown ? 569. To whom w'^as 
revelation first given ? Who are the Jews i What do they believe ? 570. What 
are Christians ? What does the Christian religion require ? What does it for¬ 
bid ^ 571. What three great divisions of Christians ? What can you say of each 
division? 572. How are Protestants divided? Mention the principal sects. 
573. What are Mahometans? 574. What did Mahomet forbid? What did he 
allow ? 575. What are Pagans ? 



l,a\V3 and Customs. 


143 

576. Most Pagans think it right to treat the feeble, the poor, and the 

Bick, with unkindness. They often torture themselves, destroy their 
children, and practise otlier cruel and wicked rites, to please their gods, 
and obtain the forgiveness of their sins. ’ 

Pagan countries are distinguished on the Chart of the World bv the 
picture of an altar. ^ 

LAWS AND CUSTOMS. 

577. The laws and customs of nations are very different, and depend 
much on their religion, and the state of knowledge and commerce. 

578. Most Pagan nations arc not required by their religion to treat their 
fellow-men with kindness. Hence they often treat with cruelty the feeble 
and*the aged, women and children, and others who cannot protect 
themselves. 

Among Pagans, it is common to leave a person to drown or perish with¬ 
out trying to assist him ; and the Tartars, and many savage nations, are 
accustomed to leave the sick, the deformed, and the aged, — even their 
own parents and children, — to perish in solitary places. 

579. Mahometans and Pagans gerierally think it right to injure or kill 
any person of another religion ; and those taken in war are made slaves, or 
cruelly treated. In most of these nations, also, it is considered right for a 
man to revenge himself on those who have injured him or his friends. 

580. The Pagan aivd, Mahometan religions also teach that women are 
unfit to be the equals and companions of men, and allow them to be used 
as slaves. Hence, among wandering nations, women are generally obliged 
to carry the burdens, and perform the most severe labors, while the men 
are idle. 

581. Among settled nations which are Pagan or Mahometan, women are 
bought and sold, and regarded as slaves, only fit for the service or amuse¬ 
ment of their masters. They are often* treated with great cruelty. It is 
only in Tibet, and a few of the Asiatic islands, that they are treated with 
respect and kindness. 

682. The Christian religion requires men to be kind and benevolent to 
all, of every nation; and among Christians, even enemies 1:aken in war 
are treated with kindness. Laws and customs are most just and kind in 
countries where Christianity is best understood and obeyed. 

588. The Christian religiori alone recognizes women as the companions 


.'378. How do most Pagans treat the feeble, poor, and sick ? What other prac¬ 
tices of their.s can you mention ? CJ. 577. What can you say of the laws and 
customs of nations ? .578. What do most Pagan religions teach as to kind¬ 

ness to fellow-men W'hom do they generally treat with cruelty.'’ 579. What 
opinions of Mahometans and Pagans are mentioned.^ What is said of the ideas 
of revenge Jiinong Mahometans and Pagans.? 580. What do these religions teach 
respecting women ? How are women treated among wandering nations ? 
581. Among settled Pagan and Mahometan nations ? What countries are excep¬ 
tions,? 582. What does the Christian religion require.? How are enemies to be 
treated .? Where are the laws and customs most just and kind ? 583. How does 
the Christian religion regard women.? 


7 



144 


CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 


of men > and in Christian countries we find them treated as such. It is 
only in the most enlightened Christian countries, that they are well 
educated. 

684.. Some nations, where Christianity is corrupted, forget or neglect 
many of these duties. In Abyssinia, and some other countries which were 
once Christian, but now have little more than the name, the people have 
imitated the cruel customs and laws of the unchristian nations around 
them. 

585. On the other hand, some of the hunting and other Pagan tribes, who 
have become Christians, like the Greenlanders, the Esquimaux, and the 
islanders of the Pacific Ocean, have laid aside their bad laws and customs, 
and become kind and peaceful. 

58G. In countries which have a great deal of commerce with enliglftened 
Christian nations, the people are often led, by imitation or shame, to 
change their cruel customs and laws. In this way, commerce may be useful 
in improving the state of society, even where there is no change of religion. 

KNOWLEDGE. 

587. Knowledge refers either to the tilings around us, or to those we 
have never seen. Our knowledge of things around Ui depends upon the 
right use of our senses, or our care and skill in observing j and those who 
have no books often have most knowledge of tins kind. 

588. But our knowledge of things tn other conntncs, or in tlic time before 
we were born, must be obtained from the information of others, either in 
conversation or in books. Hence those persons and nations generally 
possess most knowledge who are most acquainted with men of other 
countries, and with books. 

689. In nations where there arx no books, knovAcdge is preserved only by 
tradition, that is, by being told from father to son. Among the North 
American Indians, and Tartars, they often have public meetings, in which 
the knowledge and history of the tribe are communicated to the young. 

590. But igi this way many things are forgotten, many are related incor¬ 
rectly 5 and these nations have no correct knowdedge, except of things which 
they see or hear. 

591. By means of books, the knowledge of our forefathers has been pre¬ 
served 5 every new discovery is added to this stock ; and a person in one 


In what countries are they well educated i 584. What can you say of nations 
where Christianity is corrupted i What example can you give ? 5^. What is 
said of the hunting and other Pagan tribes that have become Christians? 
58fi. What can you say of countries which have much commerce with enlight¬ 
ened Christian nations? What good may commerce do in this respect? 
JC, 587. To what does knowledge refer ? On w^hat does our knowledge of 
things around us depend ? Who often have most knowledge of this kind ? 
588. How do vve obtain our knowledge of things in other countries? What per¬ 
sons and nations, then, generally possess the most knowledge ? 589. How is 
knowledge preserved in nations where there are no books ? Give examples. 
590. Does this give correct knowledge? 591. What is the use of books? 



KNOWLEDGE. 145 

country may become acquainted with what is known in all other countries 
where books are made. 

592. In this way, so much is collecied on all the branches of knowledge, 
that they can be formed into sciences, such as Astronomy, Philosophy, 
Mathematics, and Natural History 3 and we can learn the reasons of things, 
as well as the facts. 

593 Hence we find, that those nations that have no written language, or 
books, are ignorant of the sciences which are taught in our schools. Many 
of them cannot even count beyond ten, and know scarcely any thing of 
other countries. 

594. Some nations who have a written language are not acquainted with 
the art of printing. All their books are manuscripts, (or written by hand,) 
which require a great deal of time to copy 3 and therefore they are so 
scarce and expensive, that few can obtain them. 

595. Some of these nations, like the ancient Greeks, and the Arabs, and 
Hindoos, are acquainted with some of the sciences 3 but their knowledge 
is imperfect. They believe many falsehoods 3 and they are ignorant of 
many important truths which are known to the children of our schools, 
such as the form and motion of the earth. 

The Hindoos have had manuscript books for ages 3 but their religious 
books teach them that the earth is flat, and rests on the back of a turtle. 

59G. In countries tohere the art of printing is known, books are easily 
and cheaply made, in large numbers, and every kind of knowledge can be 
obtained by those who can read. 

597. If such countries carry on commerce freely with other countries, and 
all are allowed to obtain knowledge, as in Great Britain and the United 
States, we find history and the sciences well understood, and knowledge is 
constantly advancing. 

598. In China and Japan, they print with blocks of wood, instead of 
movable types 3 but they do not .allow free commerce with other nations. 
Hence their knowledge is very imperfect in every thing, and they seldom 
learn any thing new. 

599. In countries tohere printing is understood, the diffusion (or spread- 
ing) of knovjledge among the people, depends on their government, religion, 
the means of instruction, and the condition of the laboring classes. 

600. In most Pagan countries, the religion teaches many things contrary 
to the truths of science, as in Hindostan 3 and the study of foreign books 


592. What can we do with the knowledge collected in this way.? 593. What 
is said of those nations who have no written language or books.? How far can 
they count .? 594. Are all nations who have a written language acquainted with 
printing.? What books have they.? What is the effect of this.? 595. What can 
you say of nations like the ancient Greeks, Arabs, and Hindoos.? What do they 
believe ? Of what are they ignorant.? 596. What can you say of books where the 
art of printin" is known.? 597. How is it in such countries when they carry on 
free commerce with other countries.? 598. What can you say of China and 
Japan ? What is the state of knowledge in those countries.? 599. On what does 
llie diffusion of knowledge among the people where printing is understood de¬ 
pend ? 600. What does the religion of most Pagan countries t^ach as to science? 



146 


CIVIL GEOGRVPHY. 


is often forbidden. In nearly all Pagan countries, the diffusion of knowl¬ 
edge is discouraged either by the government or the religion, and the 
people are in great ignorance. 

601. Li many Christian countries, the government does not encourage 
the diffusion of knowledge. In some, it does not even provide instruction 
for the people in reading, that they may learn from books. 

602. In some Christian countries, the people are not allowed to read the 
Bible, and many other books j and while there is often a large number of 
learned men, the people are generally very ignorant. 

603. In many countries, the laboring classes (who are always the greatest 
number of the people) are either slaves or serfs, belonging to a master, or 
so poor that they have no money to buy books, and no time to read them. 
This is the case in some countries of Europe, as w'ell as other parts of the 
world ; where those who have learned to read sometimes forget it for want 
of books. 

Skrfs are a kind of slaves, who belong to the estates on which they live, 
and are sold with them, as in Russia. 

604. It is only in countries where the people are free, and able to earn a 
comfortable subsistence, and are provided with instruction in schools, that 
we find knowledge generally diffused among them. 

OCCUPATIONS OF MEN. 

605. The Creator has furnished the earth with valuable minerals and 
ores, and with a soil which will produce plants ; and has peopled the land 
and the sea with animals, to supply us with food and clothing. These are 
generally called the productions of the earth. 

606. But He requires men to employ the'ir reason and strength in obtaining 
these productions for their subsistence ; and hence we find the greater 
part of mankind engaged in some occupation, such as hunting, fishing, 
agriculture, mining, building, weaving, working in metals, navigation, or 
printing. All these are called arts or trades. 

607. Some tribes or nations are occupied merely in gathering wild plants, 
or hunting and fishing for the wild animals on which they live. Hence 
their subsistence is uncertain from day to day, and they are obliged to 
wander from one place to another in search of it. They often suffer with 
hunger and cold, and many more die in childhood, and from disease, than 
with us. 

608. Other tribes that stibsist by the pasturage of cattle, are supplied 

What is said of the diffusion of knowledge in nearly all Pagan countries? 

601. Is the diffusion of knowledge encouraged in all Christian countries? 

602. What is said respecting some Christian countries ? 603. What is the state 
of the laboring classes in many countries ? Is this the case in any countries of 
Europe ? 604. Where do we find knowledge generally difiused among the people ? 
p. m, 605. With what has the Creator furnished the earth? What has he 
given to supply us with food and clothing? What are these called ? 606. What 
<toes he require of men ? What, then, are the occupations of men ? What are 
they called ? 607. How are soi^ tribes and nations occupied ? What can you 
say, then, of their subsistence? How do they often suffer? 608. What can you 
say of those tribes that subsist by pasturage ? 




OCCUPATIONS OF MEN. 


147 

regularly with clothing, from their hair, wool, and skin, as well as with 
food from their milk and flesh. They suffer less than the hunting tribes j 
but they do not till the ground, and are obliged to move from place to place, 
to find fresh pasturage. 

G09. liofli the hunting and pastoral tribes live in tents, or in rude huts 
which are easily taken down and rebuilt; and are not settled in one place, 
except during the cold and rainy season, when they cannot remove. 

610. I\/atio7is that till the ground can obtain regular subsistence, without 
removing j and hence they build permanent houses, and settle in villages, 
towns, and cities. 

611. Among settled nations, some of the people are employed chie^y in 
obtaining the productions of the earth. Others are occupied in preparing 
them for use j and others still in exchanging these articles, and transporting 
them from one place to another. 

612. In thinly-settled countries, most of the people are employed in 
obtaining or raising the productions of the earth. 

613. In such countries as are covered ivith forests, they cut the trees 
into timber, and kill the wild animals for their flesh and skins 5 as in many 
newly-settled parts of North America. In countries which abound in min¬ 
erals, they are more engaged in mining, as in Sweden. 

614. If the ground of a thinly-settled coxintry is fertile, most of the 
people are usually farmers, engaged in pasturage or agriculture. 

615. In thickly-settled counMcs, there are more inhabitants than are 
needed to obtain the products of the earth. Many are therefore employed 
in preparing them for use, by the mechanic arts, such as tanning, spinning, 
weaving, building, and the w'orking of metals. The articles so made by 
hand are called manufactures. 

Manufacturk is from the Latin words manu, by hand, and foetus, 
made. 

616. Many others are occupied in commerce — that is, in buying, selling, 
and transporting these productions and manufactures; as traders, merchants, 
land-carriers, boatmen, and seamen 5 and others still find full employment 
in taking care of their own property, or that of others, or in doing good 
with their wealth. 

In the United States nearly 60,000 persons are employed in navigating 
the ocean, and 200,000 on our canals, lakes, and railroads. 

617. In most countries, one class of people are employed in making and 
executing the laws, and another in healing the sick. Others are engaged in 

How do they suffer compared with the hunting tribes ? Why are they obliged 
to remove from place to place 609. How do the hunting and pastoral tribes 
live ? Are they settled ? 610. What can you say of nations that till the ground ? 
611. How are some of the people chiefly employed among the settled nations 
How are others of them occupied.^ 612. How are people chiefly employed in 
thinly-settled countries.? 61.3. How are they occupied in countries covered with 
forests ? In countries which .abound in miuerjils ? 614. How is it in thinly- 
settled countries, where the ground is clear and fertile .? 615. What can you say 
of the inhabitants of thicklv-settled countries .? How are many employed ? Whal 
are manufactures.? 616, What other occupations are mentioned ? 



148 


CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 


gimng the people instruction in religion and useful knowledge, in churches 
and schools, and by means of books. All these are generally called 
professional men ; or if they merely study and write, literary men. 

618. A few, in every country, live in idleness, some upon their wealth, 
and some as beggars 5 but they are neither so healthy nor so happy as those 
who are usefully employed. 

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 

619. TTie hunting and fishing tribes are scarcely acqtiainted with any of 
the arts, except those of catching their game, preparing their skins for 
clothing, and building their huts and tents. 

620. Many of the pastoral tribes are acquainted with weaving, and some 
other arts unknown to the hunting tribes; but they are ignorant of most of 
those practised among settled nations. 

621. The working of metals is one of the most important arts ; because 
it is very difficult to till the ground, or prepare our food and clothing, and 
other things we need, without tools and instruments of iron and other 
metals, such as spades, kettles, saws, and needles. 

622. This art is very imperfectly known to the wandering nations, both 
hunting and pastoral, /n these nations, also, every man makes his own 
tools, clothing, and hut. Hence they cannot become skilful in any trade. 

623. Settled nations are well acquainted with the working of metals 5 
and every man generally pursues a single trade or art, which is called the 
division of labor. Hence, they have better tools, and more opportunity to 
become skilful in their business. 

624. Nations differ materially in their skill in arts and manufactures, as 
well as in agriculture and mining. Those are generally most skilful, in 
which the arts have been longest known and practised, and in which the 
division of labor is greatest. 

625. In old and populous countries, a large part of the people are engaged 
in the mechanic arts, and labor is much divided. Hence arts and manu¬ 
factures are in a more perfect state in old countries than in new colonies, 
or in thinly-settled countries. 

Thus in England, which has 250 people on a square mile, agriculture and 
manufactures are much more skilfully carried on than in Russia, where 
there are 20 people on a square mile ; and they are better understood in 
the old, thickly-settled states of America, than in those which are new and 
thinly inhabited. 

In Switzerland, one person often employs his whole time in making one 

617. What are professional men ? Literary men ? 618. What is said of those 
who live in idleness.? jyi, 619. Are the hunting and fishing tribes ac¬ 

quainted with the arts ? 620. What is the state of the arts among the pastoral 
tribes.? 621. What is said of the working of metals? Why.? 622. What is the 
state of this art among wandering nations.? Why can they not become skilful 
in any trade .? 623. What is said of settled nations in respect to the arts .? What 
is the division of labor.? What effect has this upon the arts.? 624. How do na¬ 
tions differ from each other as regards their skill.? Which are generally most 
skilful.? 625. How are the people employed in old and populous countries? 
What is the state of manufactures among them? 



COMMERCE. 


149 


part of a watch ; and in England, several men are employed to make a pin, 
so that one only makes the heads, another the points, and several others 
are employed to finish it. 

In some countries where they manufacture only a few articles, they 
are often made better than in any other country. Thus the carpets of 
Turkey and Persia, and the common watches of Switzerland, are superior 
to any in the world. 

COMMERCE. 


t)27. The farmers and miners of settled nations exchange the productions 
of the earth for the manufactures of the mechanic ; and each mechanic 
gives his manufactures for those of others, so that all can easily obtain 
what they need. This exchange is called trade or commerce. 

628. Internal commerce is that which is carried on to some extent 
between the people of the same country} as between farmers and those 
who inhabit towns and cities j or as in the United States, where the cloths, - 
tools, and other manufactures of the Northern States, are sent to the 
Southern, in exchange for cotton and rice. 

629. When the people of a country exchange some of their productions 
and manufactures for those of other countries, it is called foreign commerce. 
Thus, the people of the United States send flour and lumber to the West 
Indies in exchange for sugar and coffee 5 and cotton to Europe in exchange 
for manufactures. 

630. Articles sent out of a country in commerce are called exports. 
Those received from abroad are called imports. Thus, we export, from the 
United States, cotton, lumber, and flour} and we import sugar, coffee, and 


manufactures. 

631. Commerce between inland countries is often carried on by conveying 
goods on the backs of camels, horses, mules, and other beasts of burden. 
All the commerce over high mountains, as in South America, and across the 
steppes and deserts of Asia and Africa, must be carried on in this way. 

632. In such countries, the merchaiits generally travel at particular seasons 
of the year, with large bodies of loaded animals, called caravans. 

633. In very cold countries, like Russia and Siberia, nearly all the trade 
is carried on in winter, by means of sledges, upon the snow. 

634. The extent of commerce by land depends upon the state of the roads, 
which in some countries are so good, that animals can draw and carry four 
times as much as in other countries, where they are neglected. 

635. In some countries, railways are made, on which carriages or cars are 
moved on iron ways, by means of a steam-engine } and on such roads, the 
largest quantities of goods are conveyed ove r the land, in the shortest time. 


Where are particular articles sometimes made best. Give examples. 
ft fjo? What do farmers and miners of settled nations for what. 

What is this called.? What is internal commerce.? 629. ^hat is foreign 

Wliat is tills tiuie Pxnorts.? What are imports.? Give examples. 

How i, tlw com^rooTetwern inlond conntrie, oft™ carrM on ? How 1, 
631. How is me comiiic _ e.32. How do merchants gener- 

the ? 633 . How is trade carried on in very cold countries.? 

634. On what does the extent of commerce by land depend.? 635. What is the 

use of railways to commerce.? 






150 


CIVIL ULOfiKAPHY. 


G36. In countries whicli have numerous siretnns^ commerce fs carried ois 
more easily, by boats, on rivers and canals. 

637. By the art of navigation, we can carry on coramcrce across tlie 
ocean with great ease. j 4. few men can thus convey a ship’s cargo from 
Europe to China in 3 or 4 months; while thousands of men and animals 
would be employed, for one or two years, to carry the same cargo across 
the land. 

638. In this way, toe can obtain easily, and cheaply, the- productions of 
all countries. Many of these we could not obtain at all by land — or in such 
small quantities, that they would be too scarce and expensive for common use* 

639. The art of navigation also enables us to send ships to the most distant 
seas and coasts, in order to hunt and fish for animals not found near us. 
This branch of commerce is called the fisheries, which support great 
^lumbers of fishermen, while they supply millions of other persons with 
food, and with oil for lights, as well as other useful articles. 

640. But commerce also makes tis acquainted with the plants and animals 
of other countries which can be made useful in our own, and with the arts 
and inventions of other nations. In this way, we gain many new means of 
usefulness, and comfOTt, and enjoyment. 

Thus the potato was obtained from America by commerce, and now 
supplies food to millions of people in Europe •, and cotton, rice, and sugar 
were introduced into the United States from other countries. 

By means ef commerce, also, we have learned the use of the steam- 
engine, of railways, and of many other useful inventions of other countries. 

641. By the art of printing, even knowledge can be nuidc cui article of 
commerce, and conveyed in books from one nation to another. In this 
way, we have obtained most of our knowledge; and the Bible, which 
contains the most valuable of all knowledge, has been carried by means of 
commerce to all parts of the world. 

642. Hence we find that those nations which have the most extensive 
commerce on the ocean, are most advanced in knowledge and arts^ Com¬ 
merce, and the arts, especially the arts of navigation and printing, are thus 
very important means of improving mankind, when they are rightly used. 

CIVILIZATION. 

643. Civilization consists of two parts: 1st, knowledge and arts — and 
2d, justice and kindness in men towards each other. The knowledge of 
true religion is now carried, with the arts, by commerce; and hence, these 
two parts of civilization are generally found together. 

636. How is commerce carried on in countries that have numerous streams ? 
637. How can we carry on commerce by the art of navigation ? What great 
advantage has commerce on the ocean ? 638. What can we obtain in this way ? 
Could we not obtain them in any other way ? 639. What else does the art of 
navigation enable us to do.? What can you say of the fisheries.?^ 640. What 
does commerce make us acquainted with.? \Vhat do we gain in this way.? 

641. How can knowledge be made an article of commerce.? How have we ob¬ 
tained most of our knowledge .? How has the Bible been spread over the world .? 

642. What nations are most advanced in knowledge and arts.? What great uses 
have commerce and the arts.? C« 643. Of what does civilization consist? 
What can you say of the two parts of civilization ? 



CIVILIZATION. 


151 


644. Nations that live by hunting and fishing, like the American Indians, 
usually have little knowledge of other arts 5 and most of them are ignorant 
of the true religion. 

They are generally unjust and unkind to each other, and often rob and 
murder each other, and especially strangers, for gain or for revenge. 
They are usually callpd savages. 

645. IViose who live by pasturage, like the Tartars, and move from place 
to place, have more skill in the arts than hunters, and some have books 
and regular* laws. 

But they are generally Pagans or Mahometans. They are unjust and 
cruel in their customs, especially to strangers, and live in part by robbery. 
They are usually called barbarous nations. 

646. Both savage and barbarous nations oblige tlieir women to work 
like slaves. 


Wandering shepherds, or herdsmen, are sometimes called nomades, or 
wanderers. When they have the true religion, like Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob, they have a better state of society, and practise justice and kind¬ 
ness to all. But few, if any, such tribes are now to be found in the world. 

647. Nations that are settled, and subsist by agriculture, are generally 
more advanced in knowledge and arts than wandering nations ; but the state 
of society as to justice and kindness depends on the character of their religion. 

648. The settled nations of the African race, in Middle and Southern 
Africa, have such false and cruel systems of religion, that they are inferior 
in character to most barbarous nations of Asia, and must likewise be con¬ 


sidered as barbarous. 


619. The settled nations of Asia and Northern Africa.^ such as the 
Chinese, Hindoos, Moors, and Egyptians, are well acquainted with agri¬ 
culture and many of the arts, and have some books and learning. Still 
they have false religions, which do not generally teach them justice and 
kindness to all 5 they treat their women as slaves, and have many cruel 
customs and laws. They are therefore caWed half civilized. 

650. In Europe, and in other countries settled by Europeans, we find 
knowledge and arts in their most perfect state, enabling men to do all that 
is necessary for their support, comfort, and improvement. 

651. 'Their religion and laws require men to be just and kind to others, 
even to strangers ; they treat their women as companions j and have numer¬ 
ous books, which enable them to improve constantly in all useful knowledge. 

652. These are called civilized nations. Those civilized nations in which 


knowledge is most generally spread are called enlightened nations. 

644. What knowledge have the nations, that live by hunting and fishing, of the 
arts?' Of relision .? How do they treat each other.? What are they usually 
called ? 645. What can you sav of those who live by pasturage.? What is their 
character.? What are they usually called.? 646. Ho\v do savage and barbarous 
nations treat their women .? 647. How are settled nations as to knowledge ? On 
what does the state of society among them depend.? 648. What can you say of 
the settled nations of the African race? To what class of nations do they be- 
lonir? 649. What of the settled nations of Asia and Northern Africa.? What is 
said of their religions.? What are they called.? 650. What is the state of the 
nations n Errop^^nd in countries settled by Europeans .? 651. What do their 

religion and laws require.? 659. What are these nations called? What are 
enlightened nations.? 




1S2 


CIVIL GEOGRAPHt. 


653. Those nations have the best character for justice and kindness, who 
are best acquainted with the Bible; and some Christian countrie.: where it 
is little known are very deficient in both. 

The degree of civilization of each country is marked on the Moral Chart 
by shades, which are there described. 

exercises on the moral and political chart of the world. 

In which grand division of the earth does the Christian religion prevail most 
extensively ? Where can the Mahometan religion be found in Europe ? In 
which grand division, next to Europe, does Christianity prevail most extensively ? 

In what parts of North America does it prevail.’ What Christian colonies are 
there in AfricaWhat otlier country in Africa has a corrupt Christianity ? 
Which grand division of the world is chiefly Fagan What countries of Asia 
are Fagan ? Which of these are in part Mahometan ? Wh.icli have Christian 
inhabitants? What countries are Jlahometan ? Wliat country near tlie Black 
Sea is Christian? {The JVestorians, ichose country bordcn on Jinncnia, are also 
Christian.) Are there any Mahometan countries in America? What Pagan 
country in Europe? Vv’^hat countries in Africa are Mahometan? Which are 
Pagan ? 

In which grand division of the world is the Creek Church found ? In which 
two grand divisions do w'e find Protestant countries? What form of the Christian 
religion prevails in South America? In what other grand division do we find 
Roman Catholics? What Protestant country in Africa ? What I’oman Catholic 
countries in North America? Wliat are the religions of Hindostan and Oylon ? 
In what Pagan countries do we find missionary stations ? (The .Jews arc scat¬ 
tered throufrhout most countries of the icorld in smaU numbers.) 

In which grand divisions of the world do we find civilized countries? Name 
the countries which are civilized in Europe. In North America. In South 
America. What other civilized countries or colonies are there in the world ? 
What parts of the Western Continent are in a savage state ? What of the 
Eastern ? Is any part of Europe in the savage state ? What countries are 
barbarous ? What countries in the world are half civilized ? 

Which quarter of the world has the greatest extent of country in a savage 
state? Which has the least? Which state of society prevails over the greatest 
portion of the earth’s surfiice ? Which is next in extent ? Which the least ? 

What is the state of society in most Christian countries? What is the reason 
that Ab)’^ssinia is in a barbarous state? (SeeIT .584.) Are there any Mahometan 
and Pagan countries that arc fully civilized ? Which are half civilized ? What 
is the state of society of most of the Pagan nations you find ? What of most of 
the Mahometan nations? 

What are the principal forms of government in the world ? (See explanation of 
emblems.) What countries of America liave republican governments ? What in 
Europe Which countries of Europe have monarchical or imperial governments ? 
Which in Asia? Which in Africa.’ Is there any of this kind in America? 
What countries in Europe have limited monarcliies ? Are there none of this 
description in any other quarter of the world but Europe ? What countries in 
America are governed by foreign governors ? What in Asia ? What in Africa ’ 
Name the countries of Asia governed by independent chiefs or dukes. Of Africa’ 
Of America. Are there any in Europe? {There are .several in Germany and 
Italy besides those distinguished on the Chart.) 

BUILDINGS. 

654. The dwellings of the wandering tribes of Tartars, and the Bedouins 
of the Arabian and African deserts, are tents covered with felt, cloth, or 
skins. A village is merely the encampment of a horde or tribe, and is 
moved from place to place, as convenience requires. 

653. What nations have the best character for ju.stice and kindness ’ Ex 
B. 654. What are the dwellings of wandering tribes? What are their villages? 




BUILDINGS, 


153 


655. Savage nations usually live in huts, constructed of different ma¬ 
terials, and with various degrees of skill, according to .the situation and 
character ol the people. They are generally formed of stakes or poles, 
interwoven with twigs, and covered with bark or leaves, or plastered with 
clay. The fire is made in the centre, and the smoke escapes at the top. 
Those of the North American Indians are called im'g'maTns; but some of 
the savage tribes live in tents of skins. Their villages consist of an irregu¬ 
lar collection of these huts or tents. 

G56. The natives of South Africa form their huts of bent poles, plastered 
with earth, much resembling a beehive. They are arranged in a circle 
around an enclosure which contains their cattle ; and the village is termed 
a kraal. A number of villages formed around the missionary stations of 
South Africa, and Sierra Leone, have a neat appearance, and present many 
of the improvements of civilized life. 

657. The Laplanders, Northern Siberians, and the North American tribes 
of the Frozen Regions, usually reside during the summer in tents, or huts 
constructed of light materials. But the winter huts are built with thick 
walls of stone and turf, with no outlet for the smoke except the entrance. 
Jn Greenland and Lapland, they are protected from the cold winds by a 
long, vaulted passage for entrance and, to render them still warmer, many 
of the tribes of the^ regions build them half under ground, and enter 
through an opening at the top, by means of a ladder. 

658. The Esqtdmaux of North Georgia make their winter huts of snow, 
which is so compact that it may be cut into blocks, and used like stone. 
A dwelling of this kind is beautifully transparent; and when lined with 
skins and branches of trees, it is said to form a comfortable winter resi¬ 
dence in these dreary regions. (Parry.) 

659. In the Torfid Zone, many of the uncivilized nations build their huts 
of very slight materials. They are often mere sheds, used only as a pro¬ 
tection from the rains and dews. In Polynesia, and some of the Asiatic 
islands, they are very neatly built of canes, are lined with mats, and covered 
with leaves. The same style of building is found in Hindostan and 
FaHher India, and to a considerable extent in China; and these, or mud- 
walled huts, are the best buildings of the poor. 

660. The residence of a king, in Africa, appears like a collection of 
thatched barns and hovels, surrounded by a mud-wall. The palace of the 
emperor of China is only a collection of cottages, in which the meanness 
of the structures is concealed by splendid curtains and gilded ornaments. 
The dwellings of the great, in countries not fully civilized, are distinguished 
by the number of buildings, and the great extent of ground they occupy, 
rather than the superiority of architecture. 


How do savage nations usuallv live ? What are their villages ? De- 

BPrilie the dwellin.rs of the South Africans. 657. Of the tribes of the Frozen 
Baatnns 658. Of the Esquimaux. a59. How do the uncivilized nations of the 
Torrid Zone build their dwellings.? The p-ople of Hindostan and Chin-lndia.^ 
660 What can you say of the palaces of the kings m Africa. Of the emperor 
of China? Of the dwellings of the great? 




154 


CIVIL GEOGRAPHY. 


661. The dwellings of uncivilized nations have rarely more than a sin¬ 
gle room and fire. In the Frozen Regions, several families are usually 
crowded together, each occupying a stall formed by posts or skins. They 
are lighted by a large lamp, composed of moss, and supplied with oil, which 
also serves as a fire. The domestic animals often partake of the comfort 
and filthiness of these habitations. 

662. The hovels of the poor in most nations of Asia, and even in Russia, 
Poland, and some parts of Amtria, Germany, and Ireland, are little supe¬ 
rior, in structure or cleanliness, to those of savage nations j and are inferior 
to those of many nations in Polynesia. 

663. The arts and refinement of civilized natiojis lead those who are not 
poor to build more substantial and convenient dwellings, which furnish a 
complete protection from the weather. They are found with every degree 
of comfort and elegance, from the plain cottage of the farmer to the splen¬ 
did palace of the noble. 

664. In the cities of civilized countHes toe find many fine dwellings for 
the rich, extensive magazines, and stores, and workshops, together with 
churches and other buildings for public use which are often grand or 
beautiful, arranged on regular streets and squares. The account of cities, 
in each grand division, shows the different modes of Suilding. 


ROADS. 


66.5. Among savage and barbaroiis nations, no roads exist but the paths 
which are formed by the frequent passing of travellers, hi nations which 
have become civilized, the introduction of commerce leads to the establish¬ 
ment of roads ; and by making communication more easy, they increase 
the knowledge, and improve the state of the people. 

666 . In half-civilized countries, carriage-roads are rare. The people 
travel on camels or horses in Arabia, Turkey, Persia, and Northern Africa; 
and, in India, on elephants, or in palanquins, or couches carried by men. 
The energy of the government, and industry of the people, in China and 
Japan, have led to the construction of numerous roads, some of which are 
remarkable. 

667. In most civilized countiies, roads are madd and repaired with care 
in order to increase commerce. They are even carried over lofty moun¬ 
tains, so that carriages can pass even the Alps with ease and safety^ 

668 . In the United States, as in Great Britain and other countries of Eu¬ 
rope, railways have been made, (see !! 635,) on which a ship’s cargo, of 
moderate size, can be transported at once, more rapidly and certainly than 
in any other mode. Their number is constantly increasing, and commerce 
is rendered more easy. 


661. How are the dwellings of uncivilized nations divided ? 669. What can von 
say of the dwellings of the poor in Asia and some parts of Europe ? 663. Vt^at 
kind of dwellings do the rich build in civilized countries.? 664. What do we find 
In the cities of civilized countries ? R, 665. What roads do we find amoSe 

half-civilized countries* 

667, What can you say of the roads in civilized countries.? 668. Of railways.? 




NORTH AMERICA. 


155 


STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY: 


OR 


DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES. 


NORTH AMERICA. 


I. * 669. North America surpasses all other poi'tions of 
the world in the size and number of its lakes, and all except 
South America, in its rivers; but its mountains are inferior 
in height to those of Asia and South America. 

X. Questions and Exercises.—^669. What can you say of ]S. America 
compared with other parts of the world ? — Physical Map of N. America. 
On which continent is N. America ? In what zones ? How is it bounded ? 
How is it united to South America ? What figure will enclose the greater 
part of it ? (IT 200.) Has it many bays and peninsulas ? What proportion 
of sea-coast has it ? (Tl 201.) Has it any islands around it ? 


HIGHLANDS. 


I. 670. North America has two great ranges of highlands 
— the western and the eastern. The Western Highlands 
belong to the great American chain, which extends from 
Cape Horn to Beering’s Straits, and embraces the Chip- 
pewan Mountains and the table land of Mexico. The 
Eastern Highlands extend from the lowlands on the Gulf of 
Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and are called the Apa- 



(80) Profile of N. America across the United States. 


lachian Mountains. Both are shown in the profile (Fig. 80) 
of the principal ascents and descents, found in crossing 
North America from West to East. 


* Paragraphs or chapters, and questions, marked I. are designed for the first 
course of study; and those marked II. and III. for the second and third courses ; 
that is, each is to be studied on reviewing what has already been learned. 







156 


NOKTH AMERICA. 


I, Questions and Exercises. —670. What highlands has N. America? 
Describe the Western Highlands. The EsiStern.—Physical Map of N. 
America. In what directions do the rivers flow from the Western High¬ 
lands ? In what directions from the Eastern ? What great river flows S. 
between them 1 Where do the branches of the Mississippi on the eastern 
side rise ? Where those on the western side ? 

XIa Exercises on the Profile. — The dark parts of the profile show the 
common level of the ground 5 and if you will follow the upper line of the 
dark part, you will see how you must go up and down in crossing ]\. Amer¬ 
ica from East to West. What mountains must you cross first in going 
West (or to the left) from the Atlantic Ocean ? What great river basin 
do you find on descending from the Apalachian Mountains towards the 
West ? What is the lowest point in the basin of the Mississippi ? Does 
the land rise or fall W. of the Mississippi ? What mountains must you 
cross next ? What declivity lies W. of the Chippewan Mts. ? 

The mountains which are not dark are some of the highest peaks. What 
peak is there near the Pacific Ocean ? What peaks among the Apalachian 
Mountains ? Are the peaks of the Chippewan Mountains higher than 
these ? (Their greatest height is unknown; and therqfiore the tops of some 
are left unfinished.) 

H, 671. North of the Isthmus of Panama, the Cordillera., or 
Jlmerican chain, rises to the height of 8000 feet, forming the Cor¬ 
dillera of Central America; and passes, under various names, 
through the western part of North America, to the Arctic Ocean. 

672. As it proceeds North, it spreads into the table land or 
plateau of Mexico. This is one of the most populous table lands 
in the world — about 8000 feet in height, and at the North, 300 
miles broad. 

673. The Me.vican table land is bordered on each side by moun¬ 
tains, which do not rise much above its level. A lofty range 
passes JVorth through the middle of it, which is called tlie Sierra 
Madre, or Mother Range, extending to the mountain-knot of Santa 
Fe, in latitude 37°, and forming the water-shed between the Atlan¬ 
tic and Pacific. 

674. JVorth of Santa Fe, the mountains spread into four or five 
distinct ranges, separated by broad valleys, and take the name of the 
Chippewan, or Rocky Mountains. 

675. The Chippewan J\Iountains have not been fully explored; 
but the valleys are said to be well watered and fertile, and one 
pass, at least, is easy for carriage roads. Many of their peaks are 
white with perpetual snow. 

676. Jl portion of this chain runs JVorth- West, in low hills, to the 
Arctic Ocean, separating Mackenzie’s R. from the western declivity. 


II. 671. What can you say of the Cordillera, or American chain, in Central 
America ? 672. What plateau or table land does it form, and where i 673. How 
is the table land of Mexico bordered i What range passes over it i Describe the 
Sierra Madre. 674. How does this range spread at the North i What name is 
given to this part of the American chain i 675. What can you say of the Chippe¬ 
wan Mounttiins i 676. Does any part of this chain extend to the Arctic Ocean ? 



HIGHLANDS. 


15? 


G77. A separate mountain range runs parallel to the coast of the 
Pacific Ocean, which is called the Californmn or Cascade Mountains^ 
or by some geographer, the American Mantime Alps. This range 
contains many lofty peaks, covered with perpetual snow, among 
which are Mt Fairweather and Mt. St. Elias. 

G78. continuation of this chain may be traced in the Aleu¬ 
tian Islands, which also contain burning volcanic peaks, rising 
through perpetual snow. 

G79. The western declivity of the Chippewan Mountains is little 
known, except on the Columbia River; but it appears to be gen¬ 
erally a rugged, barren region. 

G80. The basin of the Columbia Rivei' is separated from Cali¬ 
fornia on the South by the Snowy Mountains, which run from 
Cape Mendocino to the Chippewan Mountains ; and is divided into 
three portions. The productive lowlands extend from the coast to 
the California Mts. The first terrace, or middle country, lies be¬ 
tween these mountains and a broken range called the Blue Mts.; 
and the second terrace, or upper country, extends from this range to 
tlie peaks of the Chippewan Mts. 

681. The eastern highlands of JVbrth America form a broad table 
land, extending from the Gulf of Mexico, North-East, to the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence, between the lowlands of the Atlantic and the 
basin of the Mississippi. 

G82. This table land is traversed by several ranges of mountains, 
of which the Allegany is the highest Hence the name Allegany 
has been given to the whole chain; but the best American geog¬ 
raphers have called it the Apalachian Chain. 

683. The northern declivity of JVbrth America is crossed in every 
direction by ranges of rocks, some of which rise into mountains ; 
but none appear to be very high. 

II, Exercises on the Physical Map of N. America .— Sea-Coast. What 
capes form the extreme points of N. America on the E., W., and S-E. ? 
Mention some of the principal capes on the eastern coast j on tne western. 

What gulf S. of North America? What two large bays in the N-E. ? 
What straits form the northern boundary ? What straits lead into Hudson's 
Bay ? What bay between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ? What gulf 
N-VV. of Newfoundland ? Where are Boering’s Straits ? What gulf and 
sounds on the western coast ? 

Highlands. What highlands in the western part of N. America? 
Where do they commence at the S. ? With what chain of S. America do 
they appear to be connected ? How many branches have they on the pen¬ 
insula ? What is the central chain called ? What table land do they 
form ? What is the chain called N. of latitude 40° ? What course does 
it take ? 


II. 677. What are the American Maritime Alps.? What lofty peaks have 
they.? 678. Where can you trace the continuation of this chain .? 679. What 

can you say of the western declivity of the Chippewan Mts.? 680. Of the basin 
of the Columbia River? 681. What do the eastern highlands of N. America 
form ? 682. What ranges of mountains on it ? What can you say of the name 
of these mountains ? How far does it extend ? 683. What can you say of the 
nor^ern declivity of N. America ? 



158 


NORTH AMERICA. 


Is there a range of mountains W. of these, and where ? What branch 
passes off from the eastern border of the table lands of Mexico, and in what 
direction? What other branch N. of latitude 40° ? What highlands in the 
eastern part of N. America ? Where do they commence at the S., and 
what is their course and termination ? 

BASIN OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 

I. 684. Between the eastern and western highlands of 
North America is the great basin of the Mississippi River. 
It extends from the Gulf of Mexico on the South, to the 
basin of the St. Lawrence on the North. 

685. It is generally level; but it is crossed hy some 
branches of the highlands. 

l, Questions and Exercises. — 684. What great basin between the eastern 
and western highlands of N. America ? How far does it extend N. and S. ? 
685. How is it generally ? How is it crossed ? Phys. Map of N. A. How' 
is the basin of the Mississippi bounded on the East and West ? How on 
the Worth and South ? 

m. G86. West of the Mississippi River, the Sierra of Texas 
passes off from the border mountains of tlie Mexican table land, 
and running North-East through Texas, it extends to the moutli of 
tlie Missouri, under the name of tlie Ozark Mountains. 

The. Wisconsin Hills appear to be a continuation of this range. The 
Black Hills are a low range separating the Yellowstone River and its 
branches from the Missouri. 

687. In the middle of the basin, East of the Mississippi River, 
we lind several branches of tlie eastern liighlands, of which the 
Cumberland Mountains are the principal. 

(588. The eastern terrace of the Chippe wan Mountaim, which forms 
a part of the basin, is a region of vast plains, some of which furnish 
pasturage to herds of buffaloes. The southern part forms the 
Great American Desert — a region of rocks, and sand, and salt 
streams. 

689. The loestern terrace of the Jlpalachian Mountains is an 
undulating country, spreading toward the Mississippi into vast 
prairies without a hill or a tree. [See H 288.) The counti'y West of 
the Mississipjn appears to have the same varied character, as far as 
longitude 96° West 

690. The whole basin of the Mississippi is tvalered by numerous 
streams, and has a soil of uncommon fertility, especially in the 
valleys of the streams, and the lowlands of the Gulf of Mexico. 


II, 686. What Sierra West of the Mississippi River? Describe its direction 
and extent. 687. What mountains do we find in the middle of this basin ? What 
are the principal ? 688. Describe the terrace of the Chippewan Mountains. The 
southern part. 689. Describe the western terrace of the Apalachian Mountains. 
What is said of the country West of the Mississippi ? 690. How is the whole 
basin of the Mississippi as to water and soil ? 



DECLIVITIES, TERRACES, AND LOWLANDS. 159 


Z. BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. 

691. The basin of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes 
is a long, and generally a narrow tract, extending from the 
sources of the Mississippi, West of Lake Superior, to the 
Atlantic Ocean. It separates the basin of the Mississippi 
from the northern declivity of North America. 

692. On the rivers and lakes, this basin is level and fertile. 
A large part of it is rugged, and unproductive or barren. 

Xi Questions and Exercises. — 691. Describe the basin of the St. Law¬ 
rence. What does it separate ? 692. What are the surface and soil of the 
basin of the St. Lawrence ? Has it any mountains ? — Phys. Map of U. 
States. In which part of this basin are the lakes ? In which is the river? 

ZZ. SOUTHERN DECLIVITY, TERRACES, AND LOWLANDS. 

693. The sovihem declivity of JVorlh Ameiica consists of the 
basin of the Mississippi, already described, and the lowlands of tlie 
Gulf of Mexico. 

694. The lowlands are very flat, and rise very little above the 
level of the sea; so tliat many parts are rendered swamps, by die 
tides of the sea, or the floods of the rivers. 

695. The greater part of the southern lowlands is very fertile; and 
they are rendered unusually productive by tlie heat of the climate. 

696. The lowland of the Atlantic declivity extends from Florida 
to the Hudson River. It co7isists chiefly of sandy pine barrens, or 
of swamps. Many of the swamps produce rich crops of rice. 

697. I'he Atlantic terrace of the Apalachian Mountains East of 
the Hudson River, where it extends to the ocean, is rugged and 
mountainous, and is not generally very productive. 

698. South of the Hu&on River, the terrace is less rugged; the 
soil is more fertile; and a mild climate renders it very productive. 

II, Exercises on the Physical Map of N. America. — Lakes. Wliat six 
lakes are formed by the R. St. Lawrence, beginning at Lake Superior 1 
Which is the largest, and which the smallest ? What lake is next to the 
Lake of the Woods on the jM-W. ? What others beyond this in the same 
direction ? Which is the most northern ? What are the two principal 
lakes on the peninsula of Mexico ? Where does Nicaragua empty, and by 
what river ? What other lakes on the western declivity, near latitude 40° ? 

Rivers. What are the two principal rivers flowing from the Chippewau 
Mountains into the Pacific Ocean ? What two rivers empty into the Arctic 
Ocean 1 Mention some of the rivers emptying into Hudson’s Bay. What 


TT I> T» Ii» Describe the southern declivity of N. America. 

694 What is said of the lowlands ? What effect have the tides of the gulf, 
and river floods ? 695. How is the soil ? 696. How far does the lowland of 
the Atlantic declivity extend ? Of what does it consist ? 697. What can you 
Bay of the Atlantic terrace of the Apalachian Mts. E. of the Hudson River ? 
698. How is it S. of the Hudson ? 




160 


NORTH AMERICA. 


river runs from the great lakes into the Gulf of St. Lawrence ? What are 
its principal branches ? What two great rivers empty into the Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico ? Wnat are the principal rivers that flow into the Mississippi from the 
W. ? What large river from the E. ? What rivers W. of the Mississippi 
flow into the Gulf of Mexico ? 

Describe the branches of the Columbia. From what lakes does McKen¬ 
zie’s River flow ? What lakes sujmly Churchill River ? What river runs 
from Lake Winnepeg to Hudson’s Bay ? What river flows from Lake St. 
Joseph into Hudson’s Bay ? What rivers empty into Hudson’s Bay on the 
S. and E. ? Where does the Mississippi rise ? Describe the branches. 
What great branches has the Missouri, and on which side are they ? What 
streams flow into the Paciflc Ocean, S. of the Columbia R. ? 

X. NORTHERN DECLIVITY. 

699. The northern declivity of North America extends 
from the sources of the Mississippi, and the basin of the St. 
Lawrence, to the Northern Ocean. 

700. This declivity is crossed in every direction by low 
ranges of rocks, as already stated. The valleys are filled 
with lakes and streams; most of which are connected 
during the floods in the warm season, and are frozen or dry 
during the greater part of the year. The borders of Hud¬ 
son's Bay abound in swamps. 

I. Questions and Exercises. — 699. What is the extent of the northern de¬ 
clivity of North America ? 700. What can you say of its rocks and valleys ? 
Of the borders of Hudson’s Bay 1 — -Physical Map of N. A. Into what parts 
of the ocean do most of the rivers of N. America flow, w'hich are N. of the 
St. Lawrence 1 What peninsula belongs to the northern declivity 1 By 
what mountains is the northern declivity bounded on the West ? 

I. PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. — 

701. The chief physical divisions of N. America are,— 
the elevated peninsula of Mexico on the south; — the eastern 
and western declivities of the highlands, (ff 670;) — the 
basin of the Mississippi which lies between them, in the 
middle regions; — and the northern declivity. 

702. The great political divisions are British America 
and Russian America in the North, the United States and 
Texas in the middle regions, and Mexico and Guatemala, 
or Central America, in the South, as described, p. 73—4. 

I. Questions and Exercises. — 701. What are the chief physical divisions 
of North America 1 702. What are the great political divisions? 

!■ EXERCISES ON SITUATIONS. 

Note to the Student. — You cannot consider yourself well acquainted 
with the map of a country, until you know every gulf, bay, peninsula, cape. 


PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 


161 


island, river, and lake, just as you know a tree or an animal, — by its 
shape, — without having the name written for you. Study the Physical 
Map of JM. America until you can distinguish and point out every thing it 
contains on the Political Map j and then answer the following ques¬ 
tions from the Political Map.* 

I, SITUATION AND BOUNDARIES OF COUNTRIES. 

On the Political Map of N. America, point out the northern declivity. 
What political division of N. America occupies this declivity ? Where is 
Russian America ? What physical divisions are there in the middle regions 
of j>f. America, between latitude 30° and 60° North ? What country occu¬ 
pies the greater part of these ? What country lies next S-W. of the 
United States, on the Gulf of Mexico ? What countries occupy the south¬ 
ern peninsula of N. America ? What are on the western declivity ? 

How is Russian America bounded 1 What is its chief village, situated 
on the Island of Sitka 1 How is British America, with its provinces, bound¬ 
ed ? Mention some of its principal towns. 

How are the United States bounded ? Describe particularly the bound¬ 
ary from the Chippewan Mts. East to L. Ontario. Describe the northern 
boundary particularly, from L. Ontario to L. Champlain. {See Map N. 
Division U. States.) Describe the boundary from Lake Champlain to the 
Bay of Fundy. {See Map of Eastern States, and note to page 78.) How 
are the United States separated from Texas and Mexico on the South-West 1 
What is the capital of the United States ? Mention some of the seaports. 

How is Texas bounded ? What is the capital ? How is Mexico bound¬ 
ed ? In what physical divisions does it lie ? How is Guatemala, or Cen¬ 
tral America, bounded? What is its capital ? 

Moral and Political Chart. — What is the government of Central America? 
Mexico ? Texas ? The United States ? To what foreign countries are 
the northern countries subject ? 

I. OCEANS, GULFS, BAYS, AND STRAITS. 

Oceans. — Point out, on the Political Map of N. America, the Arctic 
Ocean — Tlie Pacific — The Atlantic. On which side of N. America does 
each of these oceans lie ? 

Gulfs and Bays. — Point out, on the same map, Baffin's Bay. How is it 
situtited} that is, in or near what country, and in what direction from it? 
In the same way, point out and tell the situation of Hudson’s Bay — G. of 
St. Lawrence — B. of Fundy — Massachusetts B. —Delaware B. — Chesa¬ 
peake B. — G. of Mexico — Caribbean Sea — G. of Darien — G. or B. of 
Panama — G. of Honduras — Campeche B. — G. of California — Mon¬ 
terey B. — Nootka Sound — Coronation G. 

Straits. —-In the same manner, point out and describe the situation of 

* It will be a great assistance in this task, to draw the outlines of each part of 
the map, even if imperfectly ; first, the parts N. of latitude .50°, with the coast, 
bays, and peninsulas, adding the rivers afterwards j then the parts between 30© 
and 50° ; and last, the parts S. of latitude 30°. 



162 


NORTH AMERICA. 


the following straits, and mention what waters they connect: Davis’s 
Straits — Hudson’s S. — S. of Bellisle — Straits of Canso — Strait of the 
Florida, or Gulf Stream — Windward Passage — Mona Passage—S. of 
Fuca, (iV. IV. Coast,) Queen Charlotte’s Sound — Beering’s S.— Bar¬ 
row’s S. 

I, PENINSULAS, CAPES, AND ISLANDS. 

Peninsulas. — Describe the situation of Labrador — Nova Scotia — i lor- 
ida — Yucatan—California — Alaska. ' 

Capes. — In what country, and what part of it, is Cape Farewell? C. 
Charles {latitude 52° ?) C. Race ? C. Sable, {lat. 44° ?) C. Hatteras ? 
C. Sable (lat. 24°) — C. St. Antonio — C. Catoche — C. St. Lucas — C. 
Mendocino — C. Prince of Wales — Icy C.— C. Barrow—Point Tumagain. 

Islands. — Point out, and tell, near what point or part of N. America, and 
in what direction from it, the following islands are situated : Newfound¬ 
land, Cape Breton, Prince Edward, and Anticosti. (In what gulf?) 
Long Island — Bermudas — Bahama Isles — Cuba — Jamaica — Hayti — 
Revilla, Gigedo Is. ( coos/.) Vancouver’s I. — Queen Charlotte’s I. —- 
Sitka 1. — Aleutian Isles, which include the Fox Isles — Melville I. 

I. MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, AND LAKES. 

Mountains. — Where are the Chippewan or Rocky Mountains — Mt. St. 
Elias — The Black Hills — Ozark Mts. — Apalachian Mts. ? 

Rivers. —Point out, and tell, in what country, and in what part of it, the 
following rivers are found ; Mississippi — St. Lawrence — McKenzie’s — 
Copper Mine — Great Fish—Missinippi, or Churchill — Nelson’s — Co¬ 
lumbia — Colorado — Del Norte — Sabine — Missouri — Ohio. 

Lakes. — Point out, and describe, the situation of the following lakes ^ 
L. Superior — Huron — Michigan — Erie — Ontario — Great Bear L. — 
Slave L. — L. Winnipec — L. of the Woods — L. Nicaragua. 

II, Relative Situations, or Bearings and Courses. — What is the course 
of the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida? What is the direction from 
]\ova Scotia to Oregon Territory? From C. Farewell to Hudson’s Bay 
and Mt. St. Elias ? Which way is the G. of Mexico from Hudson’s Bay ? 
California from Florida? What is the general course of tlie Chippewan 
Mts. ? Of the Apalachian Mts. ? 

Point to Washington. In what direction from Washington is Hudson’s 
Bay ? Nova Scotia ? The Bermudas ? Florida ? Cuba ? Venezuela 
{S. A.)? New Grenada? Central America? Mexico? Texas? Ore¬ 
gon? Russian America? Labrador? Iceland? Norway? England? 
The Azores ? Windward Isles ? 

SI. NAVIGATION. ^ 

703. We have already seen (H 200) that North America is in¬ 
dented with numerous bays and harbors, and that it has greater ad¬ 
vantages for foreign commerce than any other division of the world 
except Europe. (H 201.) 

704. It is traversed by numerous rivers, on which navigation is 

II. 703. Has N. America advantages for foreign commerce ? Why ? 
704. What navigation is afforded by its rivers 



NAVIGATION. 


163 


extended from the ocean to tlie centre of the continent; and a 
ship may sail directly from the state of Ohio to Europe and Asia. 

705. The Mississippi and its branches furnish a direct passage, 
either for ships or large boats, from the Gulf of Mexico to almost 
every part of its great basin. 

Steamboais may ascend the Mlississippi to the Falls of St. Anthony j and 
they have ascended the Missouri, and some of its branches, to the foot of 
the Chippewan Mountains. 

706. Many of the smaller streams of the Gulf of Mexico are so 
deep, as to admit of steamboat navigation for a considerable dis¬ 
tance into the interior. 

707. The St. Laivrence opens a passage for ships of 600 tons to 
ilie rapids of Montreal; and above the rapids, large vessels can 
traverse the lakes. 

708. The numerous rivers of the Jltlantic declivity rise and fall 
with the ocean tides, for some distance from their mouths, and 
afford navigation for sloops, and often for ships, as fai* as tiie falls 
which are found at the descent from the terrace to the lowland. 
The boat Tuivigation generally extends to tlie foot of the mountains. 

709. In the Hudson River alone, tlie tide passes, and sloops sail, 
through the first range of highlands, nearly to the borders of the 
western terrace. 

710. The rivers of the noHhern declivity are so full of falls and 
rapids, tliat it is ditficult to navigate them, even in canoes; and 
they are frozen for the greater part of the year. 

711. The Columbia River is navigable nearly 200 miles for 
sloojis; and for boats to tlie Great Falls, 260 miles from the sea. 

CLIMATES AND PRODUCTIONS. 

712. JVbrth America extends into all the Nortliern Zones, and 
has every variety of climate and productions. But every part which 
is habitable for settled nations produces, in abundance, what is 
necessary for the support of man ; and famine is unknown, except 
among tlie savage tribes. 

713. In the Mexican Peninsula, we find, on the lowlands, the 
climate of the Equatorial Region, and its richest productions. 

714. The. table land has a climate like tliat of spring, [see H 487,) 
wifii tlie plants of temperate countries; although the mountains rise 
into the regions of perpetual frost and snow. 


U, 70.5. What do the Mississippi and its branches furnish.^ How far can 
boat.s ascend on the Mississippi } On the Missouri r 706. What is said of the 
smaller streams of the Gulf of Mexico ? 707. How far can ships ascend the St. 
Lawrence ? 708. What is said of the navigation of the rivers of the Atlantic 

declivity ? How far does the boat navigation usually extend ? 709. What is said 
of the Hudson River? 710. What can you say of the rivers of the northern de¬ 
clivity? 711. What of the Columbia River? O. P. IZ. 719. What can you 
say of the climate and productions of N. America ? Do all parts produce enough 
to support man ? 713. What is the climate (»f Mexico ? 714. Of the table land ? 



164 


NORTH AMERICA. 


715. The northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico belongs to the Hot 
Regions, and produces the sugar-cane and coffee. T7ie Warm 
Regions^ which yield cotton, rice, and most other productions of 
this climate, extend to 36° or 38° North latitude, on the eastern 
coast; and still higher on the western. 

716. In the Warm, Temperate, and other colder regions of 
North America, on the eastern coasts, and in the interior, the climate 
is much colder than it is in the same latitudes on the western coast 
of either continent. [See H 489.) 

Thus the mean temperature of the year in Massachusetts, in latitude 
42^, is as cold as at the mouth of Columbia River, in latitude 45^, or in 
Paris, in latitude 48^; and the winters are much more severe. 

717. The Temperate and Cold Regions, or the regions of grass 
and grain, embrace the division of the United States north of 
latitude 364°, and tlie British Provinces on the St. Lawrence, and 
the sea-coast, as far as 50° Nortli. On the western coast, they ex¬ 
tend as far as 60° North. 

718. These portions of JVorth America have hot summers, and in 
the northern parts, severe unnters; but they produce abundantly the 
plants of their respective regions. 

719. The northern declivity of Nortli America lies in the Win- 
tery and Frozen Regions. The climate is severely cold ; the waters 
are frozen for the greater part of the year ; and the short summer 
only produces grass and berries, and maintains the life of the 
mosses and a few dwarf evergreens. 

720. The animals of .North America are chiefly such as belong 
to the Temperate Regions. The largest land animals are the 
Bison or American Buffalo, and tlie fierce Grisly Bear, found 
beyond tlie Mississippi River. 

721. The climate of JVorth America is generally remarkable for its 
great and sudden changes. The winds bring, alternately, the cold 
of the Frozen Regions, and the heat of the Gulf of Mexico — the 
moisture of the ocean, and the dryness of the land. 

II, Exercises on the Chart of Climates. — In what zones does N. Amer¬ 
ica lie ? How far North does the Equatorial Region extend? What pro¬ 
ductions will you find in the lowlands of Mexico ? What in the highlands ? 
{See TT 487, and the chart.) How far do the Hot Regions extend? The 
Warm Regions ? Where does the Temperate Region begin ? How far 
does it extend on the eastern coast? On the western ? What parts of N. 
America are in the Wintry and Frozen Regions? What productions 
have they ? 

II, 715. Of the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico? How far do the 
Warm Regions extend ? 716. How are the climates of North America on the 
eastern coast, compared with those of western coasts ? 717. What parts are in 
the Temperate and Cold Regions? How far do these regions extend on the 
western coast? 718. What can you say of the seasons? Of the products? 
719. In what regions does the northern declivity lie ? What can you say of the 
climate ? 720. What can you say of the animals of N. America ? Mention some 
of the principal and largest of the animals. 721. What is generally remarkable in 
the climates of N. America ? What is the cause ? 



INHABITANTS. 


165 


III. INHABITANTS. 

722. North America contains three distinct races of men ; (1) The Indians 
of the American race, by whom it was formerly inhabited and possessed j 

(2) Europeans, and their descendants, who settled here in colonies j and 

(3) Africans, brought by Europeans as slaves, to cultivate the ground. 

723. The Indian tribes, in the middle and northern parts, have been grad¬ 
ually driven from their old habitations near the coast, to the regions West 
of the Mississippi, and North of the St. Lawrence. 

724. They are generally Pagans, in a savage state j but are superior, in 
intelligence and character, to most other savage tribes. Some tribes have 
become settled and civilized, chiefly by the labors of missionaries j and some 
have embraced Christianity. 

725. The Esquimaux Indians, who inhabit the coasts on the North, are 
inferior to the rest in intelligence, and appear to be of the Asiatic race. 

726. In the southern peninsula, the Indians were far advanced in the arts, 
and settled in large, well-built, populous cities, when the Spaniards came, 
and made them slaves. When Mexico and Central America became re¬ 
publics, they became citizens. 

727. Of the European race, the Spaniards are found almost exclusively in 
Mexico and Central America j but they are so mixed with the Indian race 
by intermarriage*, that three fourths of the population are either Indians or 
Mestizoes, that is, persons of a mixed race. 

728. The former government discouraged the diffusion of knowledge in 
Mexico and Guatemala j the people are still forbidden to read the Bible ; 
and the ignorance and low state of civilization, produced by these causes, 
have been continued, since their independence, by tears among themselves. 

729. Some of the arts are well understood 5 but generally, arts, manufac~ 
tures, and commerce, are in a low state. The people are very corrupt, and 
life and property are not safe among them. 

730. The middle regions of North America were settled almost entirely by 
the English, Scotch, and Irish. The English language is universally spoken 
by the civilized popidatioti, except in Louisiana and Lower Canada, which 
were formerly colonies of France, and in some of the German settlements, 
which retain their own language and customs. 

731. In the middle regions, the people of the European race are familiar 
with all the arts and sciences. Knowledge is more diffused, and justice 
and kindness are more generally practised, than in the South. 


III. I. 722. What races of men inhabit North America i 723. What is said 
of the Indian tribes in the middle and northern parts? 724. What is their 
religion ? Are any settled and civilized ? 725. Where are the Esquimaux ? 
Describe them. 726. What can you say of the Southern Indians ? What became 
of them on the Spanish conquest ? What are they now ? 727. What Eu¬ 
ropeans are found in Mexico and Guatemala ? How many of the inhabitants are 
Indians and Mestizoes? 728. Is knowledge diffused in Mexico and Guatemala? 
Why not ? 729. What is the state of the arts among them ? What of the people ? 
730. Who settled the middle regions of North America? What language is 
spoken ? 731. What is said of the people in this part of N. America ? Of their 
knowledge ? Of their justice and kindness ? 



166 


NORTH AMERICA. 


732. In the middle regions, we find most of the African inhabitants of 
North America. They are chiefly slaves, and of course are generally in a 
state of ignorance and degradation. The slaves are not permitted to read. 
Many of the free are well instructed. 

733. The settled inhabitants of North America profess the Christian reli¬ 
gion. In Mexico and Central America, none but the Roman Catholic reli¬ 
gion is allowed. In the United States and British Provinces, the people 
are chiefly Protestants. 

II, Exercises on the Moral and Political CharU — WbaX religions do you find in 
N. America.^ What countries are entirely Roman Catholic.^ What have both 
Roman Catholics and Protestants? What is the state of civilization in each ? In 
what parts are the jreople Pagan ? What is their state of society ? 


NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF N. AMERICA. 

RUSSIAN AMERICA. 



(81) Russians trading with Esquimaux Indians. 


I, 734. The Russians possess the north-western corner 
of North America. This region is chiejly inhabited by 
native Indians, who acknowledge the authority of the Rus¬ 
sians, and carry on a valuable trade in furs with their settle¬ 
ments, very often in sledges drawn by dogs. 

I, Questions and Exercises. Political Map of N. America. — Where is 
Russian America ? How is it bounded ? By whom is it inhabited ? 
(IT 734.) What trade has it 1 

III, 732. Where do we find most of the Africans ? What is the state of the 
slaves ? What of the free ? 733. What is the religion of the settled inhabitants 
of N. America ? What in Me.xico and Central America ? What in the U. States 
and British Provinces ? 



























BRITISH AMERICA. 


167 


XI. 735. The coast is high and rocky. It rises into a range of 
mountains covered with snow and glaciers, and contains the lofty 
pealvs of Mt Fairweather and Mt Elias. ' 

735. The climate is much more temperate than on the eastern 
coast of Nortli America. The winters are as mild as tliose of 
New York city; but the summers as cool as those of Newfoundland. 

II, Exercises. — Compare the Physical and Political Maps of N. Amer 
ica, and mention what bays you find in Russian America. What islands 
on the coast 1 What islands extending towards Asia ? What mountains 
are named on the map ? 

III. 737. The natives are chiefly Esquimaux, (Es-lce~mo,) who are 
in a savage state, and subsist by hunting and fishing. The Russians 
have established a trading settlement on Sitka Island. 

III. Exercises. Political Map of JST. America. — Where is the Russian settle¬ 
ment of New Archangel? 

BRITISH AMERICA. 

I. 738. British America embraces nearly one third of 
North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
Pacific, and the Russian possessions, and from the Northern 
Ocean to the great lakes. It may be divided into the British 
provinces, which lie on the Atlantic Ocean and in the basin 
of the St. Lawrence, and the cold, barren region north of 
this basin, which is called New Britain. 

NEW BRITAIN. 

I. 739. Neio Britain includes the peninsula of New 
Labrador, East of Hudson’s Bay, and the interior, South 
and West of this bay, which embraces the whole of the 
northern declivity of North America. 

749. It is inhabited chiefly by Indians, who go upon 
their hunting excursions, and convey their furs, in light 
canoes’of birch bark, or skins, which they carry from one 
stream to another. 

I. Questions and Exercises. — 738. What does British America in¬ 

clude ? 739. What does N. Britain include? 740. Who inhabit it ? How 
do they travel ? Political Map of N. Jmerica.— Point out New Britain, 
and mention wliat it includes. 11 739.) Compare H 739 with the 

map, and mention how it is bounded. Do you find any towns ? 

II. 741. New Bintain is a rugged, barren region, abounding in 

TT 735 Describe the coast of Russian America. 736. The climate. 

Ili 737 Wlio are the natives ? What settlement have tlie Russians formed ? 

II, 741. Describe the surface of New Britain. The climate and productions.. 



168 


BRITISH AMERICA 


lakes and streams, as described in II 700. T/te climate is severely 
cold, and the productions are few, as described in II 719. 

II, Exercises. Physical Map of N. America. — Point out the situation 
of JNew Britain on the Physical Map. What bay does it enclose '! What 
islands are there on Hudson’s Bay ? What peninsula lies E. of it 1 What 
peninsulas and islands lie N. of it ? What are the chief rivers emptying 
into Hudson’s Bay on the B. ? What on the VV. ? What are the chief 
lakes W. of the bay ? Wliat rivers empty into the INorthern Ocean ? 

IXZ. 742. The Indian tribes that wander over these regions, sub¬ 
sist chiefly by fishing, and by hunting the wild animals, on whose 
flesh they feed, and whose furs they use for clothing, or sell to the 
fur-traders. 

743. The tribes of the interior are Chippewayan or Knistenaux 
(Nis-te-no) Indians. The only Europeans who reside here are the 
British fur-traders, who inhabit a few forts and factories or trading- 
houses belonging to the Hudson’s Bay Company. 

744. Labrador and the coasts of the Kurthern Ocean are inhabited by 
Esquimaux ) and the only settlements are the missionary stations of 
the Moravians in Labrador, by whose instructions some of the natives 
have become Christians. 

III. Exercises. Political of Jr. America. — Wliere is Labrador? What 
missionary stations (inailced j) do you find here? Mention some of the trading- 
houses or factories and forts on the map, (marked Fact, or Fli) W. of Hudson’s Bay. 


CANADA. 



I. /45. T/ie province of Canada lies on the great lakes 
and the River bt. Lawr ence. It was formerly divided into 


III. 742. How do the Indians here subsist? 743. 
the Ulterior ? 744. By whom is Labrador inhabited ? 


What tribes are there in 
































NEW BRUNSWICK AND NOVA SCOTIA. 


169 


Upper and Lower Canada—now called Canada East and 
Canada West. On its borders are the celebrated falls of 
Niagara, over which the waters of the lakes pass. 394.) 

la Questions ajid Exercises. —745. Where does Canada lie? How is 
it divided ? What remarkable falls on its borders ? Political Map of U. 
States. — How is Canada bounded on the South ? ( The other boundaries 
are not certain.) Where is Montreal, the present seat of government ? 

XI. 746. Canada has every variety of surface and soil. The 
borders of ike lakes and of the St. Lawrence, where most of tlie in¬ 
habitants reside, are very fertile. 

747. The climate is various. That of IVest Canada, near the 
lakes, is temperate; but that of East Canada is severely cold in win¬ 
ter. The summers are every where hot; and the plants and fruits 
of the Temperate Regions flourish in most parts of this province. 

XZ. Exercises. — Political Map of U. States. — Point out on the Polit¬ 
ical Map each of the lakes which border Canada on the South. Point out 
the St. Lawrence River. In what part of Canada is it ? Point out the 
place of the Falls of Niagara"? Between what lakes are they? What 
rivers are there in Canada N. of the St. Lawrence ? What S. of it? 

III. 748. The people of East Canada are chiefly French peasants, 
who are industrious, but very ignorant. West Canada is chiefly in¬ 
habited by British and Americans, who are better instructed. 

749. Agriculture is not skilfully conducted, and there are few 
manufactures ; but the trade in lumber, furs, and grain, is important. 

III. Ezercises on the Political Map of U. States. — Where ia duebec, the great 
seaport of Canada t What towns on the St. Lawrence, between duebec and 
l^ake Ontario i What towns on the lakes i What in the interior. North of the 
Jakes.? What places South of the St. Lawrence? 

NEW BRUNSWICK AND NOVA SCOTIA. 

I. 750. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia occupy the 
peninsula South of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

I, Exercises on the Political Map of U. States. — Where are New Bruns¬ 
wick and Nova Scotia ? How is New Brunswick bounded ? What is its 
capital ? What other towns has it, and wliere ? How is Nova Scotia 
bounded ? What seaport is the capital ? 

II. 751. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia have a rugged 
surface, almost covered with forests ; but the soil is productive. 
These provinces, and the Island of Cape Breton, contain valuable 
mines, especially of coal, and gypsum, or plaster of Paris. 

II. E.vcrcises on the Political Map of U. States. — rivers are 
there in New Brunswick, and where do they empty? WJiat bays on its 
coast? What islands E. of it? What is the southern cape of Nova 
Scotia ? What island S. of Nova Scotia ? _ 

Cm XI. 746. What can you say of the surface and soil of Canada? 747. 
Of its climate? HI. 748. Who are the inhabitants of East Canada? West 
Canada? 749 . flow is agriculture in Canada? Manufactures? Commerce? 

N. B. N. S. II. 751. What can you say of the surface of New Brunswick 
and Nova Scotia ? Of their soil ? Their mines ? 




170 


UNITED STATES OF AMElllCA. 


zzx. 752. The coast is higli and rocky, abounding in harbors. 
The people are much engaged in commerce, and the forests, mines, 
and fisheries, furnish valuable exports. 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 



(83) Cod Fishery. 


I. 753. Newfoundland is a barren island ; but the coast 
abounds in fine harbors, and is noted for the cod fishery, 
which is carried on most extensively on the Grand Bank. 

I. Qxi. and Ex. Polit. Map of N. America. —What parts of the ocean 
l>ound Newfoundland ? What towns has it ? In what direction from 
it is the Grand Bank? For what is it remarkable? (T[ 753.) 

SZ. 754. The interior is hilly, uninhabited, and almost unknown. 
The climate is cold in winter, and foggy and chilly, even in sum¬ 
mer; and this island will wot produce grain. 


MIDDLE REGIONS OF N. AMERICA. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

I. 755. The United States occupy the middle regions 
of North America. They embrace its most fertile portions, 
and enjoy very great advantages for foreign and inland com¬ 
merce. Their situation, great divisions, and government, 
have been already described, (p. 75-81.) 


III. 752. How is the coast.? What is said of commerce.’ Of exports? 

. N. I. 753. What is the soil of Newfoundland .? Its coast.? 754. Ilow is the 
interior.? What i« tho climate of this island Does it produce grain .? 














PHYSICAL DIVISIONS. 


171 


I. Quesiions. 753, What part of N. America do the United State# 
occupy ? What is the extent of the United States territory compared with 
Europe? (Seep. 75, f 211.) What can you say of its coast? (IT 213.) 
What of its rivers? (IT 214.) What part is occupied by white men? 
(p. 76, IT 213.) What by Indians ? (TT 213.) How many provinces were 
there formerly here ? (IT 216.) How many states are there now ? (IT 217.) 
What is remarkable about their boundaries ? (IT 218.) 

How are the United States divided according to climate and productions ? 
(IT 219.) Where are the grain states ? (H 220.) The cotton states ? (IT 221.) 
What is the form of each division ? (IT 220-21.) How may the grain states 
be subdivided ? (p. 78, IT 223.) The cotton states ? (p. 80, IT 227.) What 
is there of the territories occupied by Indians? (IT 229.) 

What kind of government is that of the United States? (p. 81, It 230.) 
What is a federal republic ? (p. 70, H 194.) Of what do the United States 
consist ? (IF 230.) What is the government of each state ? (p. 82, IT 237.) 
How is each state divided? (IT 238.) 

IX ■ By whom are the laws of the United States made ? (p, 81, If 233.) 
By whom are they executed ? (IT 234.) Who assist the President, and 
what are they called ? (IT 234.) By whom are judges appointed, and what 
is their duty? (H 235.) What is Washington called, and why ? (IT 236.) 

I. 756. The chief physical divisions of the United States, 
as already described, are the western declivity, on the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean ; the eastern declivity, on the Atlantic; and 
the basin of the Mississippi, which lies between them. The 
northern part of the United States includes a portion of the 
basin of the St. Lawrence. (IJ 691.) 

I, Questions and Exercises. — 756, What are the chief physical divis¬ 
ions of the United States ? Point out, on the Political Map of the U. 
States, the eastern declivity of N. America. The basin of the Mississippi. 
What states lie on the eastern declivity, E. of New York? What states 
on this declivity, S. of N. York ? Which of the states, S. of New York, 
extend over the mountains into the basin of the Mississippi ? What states 
lie in the basin of the Mississippi ? What states lie on the lakes and the 
St. Lawrence River, or partly in the basin of the St. Lawrence ? Which 
of the states in these basins lie N. of latitude 36.^° ? Which S. of latitude 
36^° ? What territory lies on the western declivity of the United States ? 

II, Questio 7 is. — Review the pages from p. 157 to 159, and answer the 
following questions : What is known of the western declivity of the United 
States ? ^p. 157, TF 679.) What of the basin of the Columbia River ? (IF 680.) 
Describe the eastern terrace of the Chippewan Mountains, (p. 158, IF 688.) 
The western terrace of the Apalachian Mountains. (IF 689.) 

What is the general surface of the basin of the Mississippi ? (p. 158, IF 685.) 
Its soil ? (H 690.) Of the lowland of the Gulf of Mexico ? (IF 690.) Of the 
lowland of the Atlantic declivity? (IF 696.) Of the Atlantic terrace East 
of the Hudson River? (IF 697.) What is the character of this terrace 
South of the Hudson River? (^ 693.) 


172 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


I, EXERCISES ON SITUATION. 

Study the situation and shape of every gulf, bay, peninsula, cape, 
island, river, and lake, on the Physical Map of the United States, until 
you can point it out on the Political Map j and answer these questions. 

GULFS, PENINSULAS, &:C. 

Gvlfs, Bays, and Sounds. —Near what state or states, and in what direc¬ 
tion, is the Gulf of Mexico ? G. of St. Lawrence ? Bay of Fundy ? Pe¬ 
nobscot Bay ? Massachusetts B. ? Narragansett B. ? Long I. Sound '! 
N. YorkB. ? Delaware B.? Chesapeake B.Albemarle S. ? Pamlico S.? 

Peninsulas.^How, or between what waters, are the following penin¬ 
sulas situated 1 C. Cod ? New Jersey ? The peninsula comprising Del¬ 
aware, and a part of Maryland and Virginia ? Florida ? Michigan ? 

Capes. — In what state, and in what part of it, is C, Ann? C. Cod’? 
C. Malabar? Montauk Point? Sandy Hook? C. May ? C. Henlopen ? 
C. Charles? C. Henry? C. Hatteras ? C. Lookout? C. Fear? C. 
Florida? C. Sable ? C. Roman? C. Orford? C. Adams ? 

Islands .—'Where is Long Island? Nantucket? Martha’s Vineyard? 
Block I. ? Key West, in lat. 24^° ? 

RIVERS, LAKES, AND MOUNTAINS. 

Rivers. — What state is bordered by the St. Lawrence R. ? What by the 
St. John’s R., which is near the St. Lawrence ? Through or between what 
states do the following rivers flow ? — Mississippi ? Its branches, viz., Ohio 5 
Missouri 5 Arkansas; Red R.; Kaskaskiaj Illinois} Wisconsin? On which 
side of the Mississippi are the Yellowstone R. ? Platte R. ? R. Kanzas ? 
Where is the Columbia R. ? (Name the principal branches.) Penobscot ? 
Kennebec? (Name the branch.) Connecticut? Hudson? (Name its 
branch.) Delaware? Susquehaimah ? (Name its branches.) Potomac? 
(Name its branch.) Rappahannock? James? (Name its branch.) Ro¬ 
anoke? Pamlico, Meuse, and C. Fear? Pedee ? Santee? (Name its 
branches.) Savannah ? Ogechee ? Altamaha ? (Name its branches.) 
St. Mary’s ? St. John’s ? Apalachicola ? (Name the branches.) Mobile ? 
(Name its branches.) Sabine ? Trinity ? Brazos ? Colorado ? Del Norte ? 

Where are the following branches of the Ohio, viz.: Tennessee ? Cum¬ 
berland ? Green ? Kentucky ? Licking ? Great and Little Kanhawa ? 
Monongahela ? Allegany ? Muskingum ? Scioto ? Miami ? Wabash ? 

Lakes. — What states are bordered by L. Superior ? What by L. Huron ? 
L. St. Clair ? L. Michigan ? L. Erie ? L. Ontario ? L. Champlain ? 
In what state are the Lakes Borgne and Pontehartrain ? 

Mountains .—Where are the Apalachian Mountains? Through what 
states do these ranges pass? Where are the Green Mountains? The 
White Mountains ? Cumberland ? Chippewan ? Long’s Peak ? Spanish 
Peak ? The Black Hills ? The Ozark Mts. ? 

II, Relative Situations, or Courses and Bearings. — What is the course 
from Washington to the following places ? — Baltimore, Philadelphia, New 
York, and Boston ? To New Orleans ? To Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Jeffer¬ 
son City ? To Harrisburg ? To Richmond ? To Raleigh and Charleston ? 


PHYSICAL, DIVISIONS. 


173 


To Detroit? Which way from New York to Albany and Montreal? 
From Boston to Quebec ? From Boston to .Albany, Bufelo, and Detroit f 
From Philadelphia to Columbia, Indianapolis, and Springfield? On or 
near what parallel of latitude are tliese four places ? 

In what town and state do you live ? Find the town, or the nearest 
large town, on the map. Tell now in what direction each state and cap¬ 
ital is from it, beginning at Maine. 


ZX. ATLANTIC LOWLAND AND TERRACE. 

757. The Mlantic lowland commences at the mouth of the Hud¬ 
son River, and extends South through the states of New Jersey, 
Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. 

758. It widens towards the South, until it covers one third of the 
states of North and South Carolina,and Georgia; and is continued 
in the lowland of the Gulf of Mexico, through the states of Ala¬ 
bama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. 

759. The lowland contains a large proportion of sands and 
swamps on the Atlantic coast, (as stated in p. 98, H 292, and p. 99, H 
294 ;) but on the Gulf of Mexico, it is very fertile. 

760. This lowland is bordered on the land side by a rocky ledge, 
which forms the step to the Atlantic terrace. The ledge may he 
traced by the falls of the rivers in descending from the terrace to 
the lowland, and by the towns which have been built at the head 
of ship or sloop navigation. 

761. East of the Hudson River, this ledge becomes, to a great 
extent, the coast of the sea, which is generally high and rocky. 

762. The Atlantic terrace, East of the Hudson River, embraces 
the rugged states of New England. 

7G3. Souih of the Hudson River, the terrace is the most fertile 
portion of tlie Atlantic States. It forms the “ middle country ” of 
the Southern States, both on the Atlantic, and on the Gulf of 
Mexico, where the same terrace is continued. 

ZI. Exercises on the Physical and Political Maps of the United States. 
— Tlirough what states does the Atlantic lowland extend, in passing along 
the coast from the city of New York to the Sabine River? Compare the 
Physical and Political Maps of the United States, and mention the situa¬ 
tion of the following tovvns, which mark the course of the rocky ledge 

7G0) from New York to N. Carolina; Trenton—Baltimore — Washing¬ 
ton — Fredericksburg — Richmond — and Petersburg. {Map N. Div.) From 
N. Carolina to Alabama; Halifax—Tarboro — Fayetteville — Camden — 
Columbia — Augusta — Milledgeville — and Macon. {Map S. Div.) 


II. j5l. I«. T. 757. Where does the Atlantic lowland commence ? 758. 
Describe it in its course towards the South. 759. How are the lowlands on the 
Atlantic coast i’ How on the Gulf of Mexico ? 760. How are these lowlands 
bordered on the land side.? How can you trace the rocky ledge which bounds 
them? 761. What is this ledge, E. of the Hudson River.? 762. How is the 
Atlantic terrace E. of the Hudson River.? 763. IIow is it South of the Hudson? 
What does it form.? 




174 


t'lNITKD STATED OF AMERICA. 


IX. APALACIIIAN MOUNTAINS AND TABLE LAND. 

764. 'Hie most eastern range of the Jlpalachian Mountains is the 
Biue Ridge, which extends from the head waters of the streams 
which empty into the Gulf of Mexico, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

765. ^s far North as the Hudson, its course is Nortli-East Here 
it turns North, along the borders of Massachusetts, under the 
name of the Taghonnuc Mountains. 

766. In Vermont, it forms the range of the Green Mountains ; 
and then turns North-East again, to form tlie water-shed between 
the St. Lawrence and St. John’s River. 

767. 7’^e most western and loftiest range of the ^dpalachian 
Mountains, is the Allegany Ridge. It extends through the states ol 
Pennsylvania and Virginia, and spreads into separate ranges and 
table lands at the North and South. 

768. Between the Blue and the Allegany Ridges, is the ^pala- 
chian Table Land, or “ upper country ” of the Southern States. It 
extends more than 800 miles, from Alabama, through Tennessee, 
North and Soutli Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, 
and spreads over most of the western part ot New York. 


The profile (841 
shows the ascent ana 
descent of the land in 
passing from the At¬ 
lantic Ocean over the 
Apalachian Moun¬ 
tains. The letters are 
the initials of the 
names ; as, B. R. Blue 
Ridge. {See p. 101.) 


AMts 









AL 


(84) Profile of the Apalachian Mis, 


769. In ivestern New York, the surface of this table land is from 
600 to 800 feet above the sea; but towards the Soidh, it I'ises to the 
height of 1000 and 2000 feet. 

770. It has generally a fertile soil, and a climate favorable to all 
tlie productions of tlie Temperate Regions, even in the Southern 
States. Its wheatfelds are the richest granary of our country. 

771. The Apalachian Table Land is crossed by many ranges of 
mountains. Several of these form one connected chain, Avhich was 
called, by the Indians, the Katatin, or Endless Mountains. 

772. The Katatin Mountains extend, under various names, from 


II. .A-.IVE.T. 764. What is the most eastern range of the Apalachian 
Mts.765. What is its course to the Hudson.^ How does it turn here, and 
under what name ? 766. What name does it take in Vermont ? .767. What is 
the most western range of the Apalachian Mts. ? What can you say of its 
height.^ How far does it extend? 768. Where is the Apalachian tableland? 
What is it called at the South ? How far does it extend ? 769. How high is th» 

surface of the table land in New York ? How high towards the South ? 770. What 
are its soil and climate? What can you say of its wheat fields? 771. Are there 
any mountains on the table land? What chain do some of them form? 
77^ How far do the Katatin Blountains extend ? 








Pfli^SiCAL DIVISIONS. 175 

the state of Ne^v York to Alabama, where tliey terminate in the 
border mountains between North Carolina and Tennessee. 

773. Near the northern extremity of the Katatin Mountains are 
tjie Catsicill Mountains of New York, running North across the 
falls of the Mohawk River. Here thei) divide into t^vo branches, 
running North-East and North-West, and separating tlie waters of 
Hudson River from those of the St. Lawrence. 

/74. The White Mountains are an outlying range on the north¬ 
ern part of the Atlantic ten'ace. They contain the loftiest jpe«/t 5 
of this region; but these appear to be inferior in height to the 
Black and Roan Mountains of the Blue Ridge, at the southern 
extremity of the Apalachian cliain. 

iNIt. Washington, the highest peak of tlie White Mountains, is C226 feet 
above the sea. The Black Mountain is said to be G74G feet, and the Roan 
Mountain 6038 feet in height, — both in N. Carolina. 

What is the most eastern ridge of the Apalachian Mountains, which bor¬ 
ders the terrace on the land side ? What is its course from Alabama and 
(jeorgia to the Hudson River ? What course does the Blue Ridge take 
here I What new names has it in Vermont ? What course does this range 
take, E. of the sources of the Connecticut River ? 

What is the most western ridge of the Apalachian Mountains ? What 
table land lies between the Blue Ridge and the Allegany Alountains ? 
(IT 758.) What range of mountains traverses this table land ? 

XJ. CREST AND PASSES OF THE APALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. 

775. The creM of the Apalachian Mountains is not generally 
more than 2000 feet above the sea. It descends from the loftiest 
points., at the North and South, towards the valleys of the Hudson 
and Delaware Rivers ; and there it is lowest. 

77(3. The Blue Ridge is the watershed between the streams of 
tlie Atlantic Ocean and tliose of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, 
except in Virginia and Pennsylvania, hi these states, the rivers rise 
in t'lie Allegany Ridge, and find pa-sage through the other ranges. 

777. The Apalachian Mountains have numerous passes, easily 
traversed. Tkep are high enough to separate the Eastern from the 
Western States, and to supply both w'itli pure streams of water; but 
they are so gfadual in their ascent, that they are crossed by roads, 
railways, and canals, and do not interrupt the intercourse between 
these states. 

778. They abound in valuable minerals, especially in iron and 
coal. These are easily obtained, and are also easily transported by 

XT. Where do tliey terminate.^ 773. Where are the C.atskill Mountains.^ 
Where and how do they divide 774. What can you say of the White Mts. How 
do tliey compare in height with other mountains of this region i Are there any 
higher on the Apalachian Chain.? C. P. A. Zld. 775. How high is the crest 
of the Apalachian Mts..? Where are the loftiest points.? Where is it lowest? 
77G. What range is the water-shed between the streams of the Atlantic and the 
Mississippi.? What in Pennsylvania and Virginia.? 777. Have the Apalachian 
Mts. many passes.? What can you say of their height.? Ilow do they admit of 
roads, railways, and canals.? 778. Have they any valuable minerals.? Are these 
easily obtained and transported .? 



176 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


means of the streams and canals which connect the mines with 
the surrounding states and the ocean. 

IZ, Exercises on the Map of the S. Division of the U. S. — What 
streams rise from the Apalachian Mountains, and empty into the Gulf of 
Mexico ? What streams rise from the Blue Ridge South of Virginia? 
{Map N. Div.) Where do the streams of Virginia and Pennsylvania rise, 
which empty into the Atlantic Ocean and its bays ? {Map cf Eastern 
t^tates.) What is the water-shed between the rivers of New England, 
which flow into the Atlantic Ocean, and those which flow into the St. 
Lawrence and the Lakes ? W^liere are the White Mountains ? 

WESTERN TERRACE OF THE APALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. 

779. The western terrace of the Jjpalwchian Mountains embraces 
the north-eastern part of the basin of the Mississippi, and the 
neighboring regions of the basin of the St. Lawrence. It extends 
from the* state of New York to Tennessee, and contains the states 
lying on the Ohio River. 

7S0. It is crossed by the Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee, 
and the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania. But it is 
generally a waving countr}'^; and in the states north-west of tlie 
Ohio River, it spreads into vast prairies. 

781. It is watered by numerous streams, and surpasses almost 
every other part of the United States in the fertility of its soil and 
the richness of its crops. 

782. This terrace contains immense beds of coal, and abounds 
witli salt and gypsum, which promise inexhaustible supplies for the 
Western States. Its lead mines, near the Mississippi River, exceed 
most others in the world in richness; and copper is abundant on 
Lake Superior. 

ZZ. Exercises 07i the Map of the N. Division U. S. — What great branch 
of the Mississippi River runs from the E. through the western terrace of 
the Apalachian Mountains ? In what states are the principal sources and 
upper branches of the Ohio River ? What states lie upon this terrace, 
Dordering on the Ohio River ? 

783. Those parts of the United States which lie in the basin of 
the St. Lawrence, as well as tliose on the Ohio River, form a part 
of the western terrace. 

784. The basin of tJw Mississippi consists of this terrace and the 
lowlands of the Gulf of Mexico, already described, (H 759,) to¬ 
gether with similar regions beyond the Mississippi, which appear 
to be less fertile. 

785. The valleys of the streams are generally the most fertile 

ZZ. W.T. 779. What is said of tlie western terrace of the Apalachian 
Mountains.^ What states does it embrace 780. What mountains cross it.^ What 
is its general appearance ? How is it north-west of the Ohio River.? 781. How is 
it as to water and soil ? 782. Wh.at minerals does it cfintain .? What can you 
say of its lead mines.? 783. What parts of the United States besides those on the 
Ohio River belong to this terrace.? 784. Of what does the basin of the Missis¬ 
sippi consist.? How are the regions beyond the Mississippi ? 785. What is said 
of the valleys of the streams.? ^ 




PHYSICAL DIVISIONS. 


177 


tracts ; but lower course and the delta of the Mssissippi are bor¬ 
dered by extensive swamps and cane-brakes, which cannot be cul¬ 
tivated or inhabited. 

htxercises on the Jh*oliticcil Map of the United — What stales 

and parts of states are there whose streams empty into the St. Lawrence 
and the Lakes ? ( These regions of course lie m the basin of the St. Law¬ 

rence.) ^ On what terrace are they ? (![ 733.) Name the streams, beginning 
at the L. In what two states S. of Ohio do all the streams empty into 
the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers? What streams empty into the Gulf 
of iVlexico on each side of the Mississippi ? fl'lie highlands at the head of 
these streams show where the declivity of the Gulf of Mexico begins, and 
where the western terrace (TT 779) terminates.) 


X21. DECLIVITIES OF THE CHIPPEWAN MOUNTAINS. 


786. The eastern terrace of the Chippewan Mountains lies West 
of the states of Missouri and Arkansas. It is generally a region 
of steppes and deserts. It is only filed to pasture tlie herds of 
butfiloes and wild horses which range over it; and is habitable only 
for wandering hunters, or herdsmen. The western declivity of 
these mountains has been already described. (^1 679-680.) 


Exercises on the Physical Map of the United States. — What are some 
of tlie largest streams on the eastern terrace of the Chippewan Mts. ? 
Wliich way do tJiey flow ? What mountains separate these from the Trin¬ 
ity R. and other smaller streams flowing into the Gulf of Mexico ? (These 
highlands show the commencement of the declivity of the Gulf of Mexico 
\V. of the Mississippi 11.) 

Rivers. — VVliat are the six principal rivers emptying into the Atlantic, 
E. of the Hudson ? Which is the largest ? What is the course of the 
Connecticut River, where does it empty, and what is its rank as to size ? 
Describe, in the same manner, the other five principal rivers E. of the 
Hudson. 

Describe, in tlie same way, the Hudson River and its principal branch. 
Describe the two large rivers next S. of the Hudson, and their branches. 
What is the general course of the rivers which have been described ? 
What is the general course of the rivers which empty into the Atlantic, S. 
of the Susquehannah ? What rivers empty into Chesapeake Bay, and on 
which side ? What considerable branch has the Potomac ? 

Describe the rivers emptying into Albemarle Sound. Describe those 
emptying into Pamlico SounA What rivers are found between these and 
SavannaTi River? Describe their source, rank, and branches. Describe 
the Savannah, and the rivers S, of it emptying into the Atlantic. What are 
the principal rivers of Florida? What branches form the Apalachicola? 
Mention the eastern and western branches of the Mobile River, which 
empties at the town of Mobile. What two rivers between the Mobile and 
the Mississippi, S. of the Ohio ? What two rivers form the Ohio, and 
where do they rise ? Describe the principal branches of the Ohio on the 
southern side, beginning at the mouth. Describe those on the northern 
side. What branches has the Mississippi, N. of the Ohio ? 


II, Of the lower course and delta of the Mississippi ? "D, C. HM. 786. 

Where is the eastern terrace of the Chippewan Mountains ? What is the face of 
the country and soil ? How is it inhabited ? What can you say of the western 
declivity of the Chippewan Mountains? (See IT 6*11,680.) 




178 


UNiTED states Of AMERICA. 


What are the three largest western branches of the Mississippi ? What 
N. of the Missouri ? What rivers between the Missouri and iUkansas R. ? 
Describe the sources and course of the Missouri. Describe its principal 
branches. What lakes near the mountains ? 

What small river next W^. of the Red R., which forms the south-western 
boundary of the United States ? What rivers between the Sabine and the 
Rio del Norte ? Where do they rise, and what is their general course ? 
Which is the largest? Describe the source, course, mouth, and rank ol 
each. Describe the Rio del Norte. 

What large river empties into the Pacific from the United States? 
What two branches of the Columbia rise near the Missouri ? 

Lakes. — W^hat is the most western of the great chain of lakes N. of the 
United States? What islands does it contain? What straits connect it 
with L. Huron ? What lakes near the mouth of the Mississippi ? 

Where is Lake Michigan, and with what lake .does it communicate ? 
What lake between Huron and Erie ? What river empties into it ? What 
rivers empty into Lake Erie, and from what state ? VVhat river between 
Erie and Ontario ? What rivers empty into Lake Ontario ? W^hat lake E. 
of Ontario, and how is it connected with the .St. Lawrence ? W’hat small 
lake is connected with this ? 

Map of Eastern States. — What small lake E. of Champlain, and what 
river passes from it ? ^V'hat lakes in New Hampshire ? Wmat in Maine ? 

ZI. NAVIGATION. 

787. The United States possess advantages for foreign and inland 
comtnerce, greater than those of most otJicr parts of North America. 

788. Tlie eastei'n coast, from the Bay of Fundy to Chesapeake 
Bay, abounds in bays, sounds, and harbors, which render the states 
bordering upon them tlie most commercial in the Union. 

789. The nvers of this region are also navigable, as far as the 
tides reach, for vessels of considerable size; and in the Hudson 
River, and those South of it, ships can tuscend from 100 to 2C0 
miles into the interior. 

790. The eastern coast, from Chesapeake Bay to Florida, is low 
and sandy; the sounds and rivers are obstructed by shoals and 
bars ; and there are few harbors -wliich can receive large ships. 

Hence the Southern States are least engaged in foreign commerce ; and 
most of their trade is carried on by the vessels of the Northern .States. 

791. The mouths of the rivers on the Gulf of Mexico serve as 
harbors for large ships; and JVeiv Orleans, at the mouth of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, is the centre of trade, from all parts of the world, to the 
great basin of this river. 

II, Exercises on the Maps of the United States. Eastern States .— 


II. KT, 787. What is said of the advantages of the United States for com¬ 
merce t 788. What of the eastern coast ? 789. Of the rivers of tliis region ? 
790. How is the coast from the Ches.apeake Bay to Florida f Which states, then,' 
have the least foreign commerce ? How is most of their trade carried on 791. 
What is said of the mouths of the rivers on the Gulf of Mexico? Of the 
Mississippi ? 


* The teacher may pursue the examination more in detail, if he thinks proper, 
on the maps of the divisions of the United ,“States. 





NAV'IGATiON. 


179 


VVhat bays and sounds do you find, from the Bay of Fundy to the Hudson 
fiiver 1 — Nor/hem Division. What bays from the Hudson River to Chesa¬ 
peake Bay ? What large rivers empty into Chesapeake Bay ? — Southern 
Division. Are there any open bays South of Chesapeake Bay 1 What 
sounds are there? How obstructed? (IT 790.) What rivers of the Gulf 
of Me.'iico have towns or ports at their mouths ? (*11 791.) 

79^. The United States are not less favored in regard to mknrf 
navigation, as described in part under the head of North Amer¬ 
ica, (pp. 162, 163.) 

793. 'The streams of the Atlantic declivity are navigable for boats, 
with the aid of canals around the falls, nearly to their sources; 
except in Maine and New Hampshire. 

794. The rivers of Hue Gulf of Mexico can be navigated by steam¬ 
ers, tlu-ough a large part of tlieir course. 

795. The Mississippi can be navigated by steamers—by the 
Missouri for 2000 miles, and by the ^Ohio to Pittsburg. Its nu¬ 
merous branches extend inland navigation to every part of its 
basin. 

796. The passes of the Apalachian Mountams, and the water¬ 
shed which separates the basin of the IMississippi from that of tlie 
St. Lawrence, are not very' high. Canals have therefore been cut, 
connecting the Mississippi with the hikes, and Avitn the streams of 
the Atlantic declivity. 

797. Several canals are commenced, and one completed, connect- 

in'T the Ohio River ivith Lake Erie. The Pennsylvariia Canal and 
Railway, from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, connect tlie Ohio with tlio 
Delaware River, and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal with the Po¬ 
tomac River and Chesapeake Bay. , xx r.- 

798. The Erie Canal of New York connects the Hudson River 
with Lake Erie ; and the Champlain Canal opens a boat navigation 
to Lake Champlain and tlie St. Lawrence River. 

799. A chain of canals also connects New York harbor witJi the 
Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, and Albemarle Sound. This fur¬ 
nishes inland navigation along the coast, from Rhode Island, and 
tlie southern part of iNIassachusetts, to North Carolina. 

800. A chain of railways furnishes more rapid means of con¬ 
veyance for passengers, and valuable articles of commerce, from 

Maine to Georgia. , u 

801. A number of smaller canals and railways have been con- 


TT 792. How are the United States as to inland navigation ? 793. What is said 
of the streams of the Atlantic declivity 794. Of the rivers of the Gulf of Mex- 
ico ^ 795. Of the Mississippi ? Its branches ? 796. Of the passes of the Apala¬ 
chian Mountains? How is the Mississippi connected with the lakes and streams 
of the Atlantic declivity ? 797. What canals connect the Ohio River with Lake 
Erie ^ What one with the Delaware ? With the Potomac and Chesapeake Bay. 
798 What canal connects Lake Erie with the Hudson River ? The Ihidson with 
Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence River? 799. How is New York harbor 
rS^^eS with the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, and A bemarle Sound ? 
^rhaffnlan^ navigation does this furnish? 800. Wiat phain of railways is 
there ? 801. Are there other canals and railways m the T nited . tates . 





180 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


structed, which give the advantages of inland commerce to almost 
every part of tlie United States. 

Exercises on the Map of the N. Division of U. S. — From what city on 
the Hudson R. does the Erie Canal pass '! What place lies at its .entrance 
into Lake Erie ? Mention some of the places which lie upon it. Trace 
the course of the Pennsylvania Canal and Railway in the same manner. 
Of the Chesapeake and C)hio Canal. Of the canal from Ohio to Cleveland, 
on Lake Erie. Of the canals from New York harbor to North Carolina. 

£Z. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. 

802. A general account of the climate and productions of the 
United States has already been given under tlie head of North 
America, which may be reviewed in this place in connection with 
the Chart of Climates, as in tlie following exercises. 

Chart of Climates. —Jn w’hat regions do you find the United States on 
the Chart of Climates ? What productions may we expect in the northern 
parts? (TT 512, p. 132.) What in the southern parts? (TT 510.) Does any 
part extend into the Hot Regions ? \Vbat productions do w'e find there ? 
(See p. 130, IT 509.) How far do the Waj-m Regions extend in the 
United States? (IT 715.) How does the temperature of the United States 
compare with that of Europe in the same latitude? (IT 71G.) What parts 
do the Temperate Regions embrace ? (IT 717.) 

803. In the temperate or grain states, the climate varies with the 
situation and height of the land. 

804. The climate of the inland regions in the grain states is con¬ 
tinental, [see IT 480,) with hot summers and severe winters. The 
change from winter to summer is so sudden, that tliere is scarcely 
any spring. 

805. On the coast of the sea and the great lakes, the climate is 
much milder. The ivinters are as mild as in places farther South ; 
and the snmmei's are cooler than in any part of the interior. 

80G. Ihe table land of Virginia and Maryland enjoys a pleasant 
temperature in summer, while the lowlands are scorched with heaL 

807. The grain states yield all the crops and fruits of the Tem¬ 
perate Regions, except in some districts at the North, where wheat 
and the more delicate fruits wdll not grow. 

808. In the lowland and terrace of the cotton states, snow is very 
rare ; the loinlers resemble a northern spring ; and the summers are 
intensely hot, especially in the interior. 

809. In these disti'icis, rice, cotton, figs, and many other plants of 
the Warm Regions flourish; but the olive has not been cultivated, 
and the oranges are not of a good quality. 


Zla Ca Z’a &02. Where do you find an account of the climate of the United 
States ? 803. How is the climate in the grain states ? 804. How is the climate 
of the inland regions.? What is said of the change from winter to summer? 
805. What is the climate on the coast of the sea and the lakes ? How are the 
winters and summers ? 806. What is said of the table land of Virginia and 
Maryland ? Of the lowlands ? 807. Of the grain states ? Which are they ? (IT 220.) 
808. Of the warm or cotton states? Which are they ? (IT 221.) 809. VVhat plants 
flourish there ? 



INHABITANTS. - 


181 


810. The Jipalachian table land^ in the cotton states, enjoys a 
mild and uniform climate, and produces tlie fruits and plants of the 
Temperate Region. 

811. 7Vie Hot Region on the Gulf of Mexico yields the sugar¬ 
cane, coffee, and other fruits of this region. 

812. Like other parts of North America, the United States have 
a very variable climate; and the changes from day to night, and 
during the day, are greater than in most other countries in the 
same latitude. 

ZII. INHABITANTS. 

813. Tke United States were originally inhabited by Indian tribes, which 
have nearly all wasted away, or removed to the regions West of the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, except a small number in New England and New York. 

814. The original states loere settled chiefly by English, Scotch, and Irish 
emigrants ; but great numbers of Germans, and other Europeans, have since 
entered tlie country 5 and there are 2,500,000 African slaves. 

815. In the states North and East of Maryland, common schools are es¬ 
tablished, and nearly all the inhabitants are taught to read, and are familiar 
with the Bible. 

816. In these states the people are industrious. Agriculture is carefully 
attended to, though with far less skill than in Europe. Manufactures are 
extensive and important; and the inhabitants of the coast are actively en¬ 
gaged in the fisheries, and in commerce with every part of the world. 

817. In the states North of the Ohio, the condition of the people is similar 
to that of the North Eastern States; but they are not yet so generally in¬ 
structed. Manufactures are only beginning to flourish. 

818. The Hvers and canals of the West are crowded with boats and 
steamers, conveying its produce to the Eastern and Southern States. 

819. In the states South of Pennsylvania and the Ohio River, the white in¬ 
habitants of the lowlands are generally planters j that is, they own planta¬ 
tions, which are cultivated by slaves of the African race. In the highlands, 
the w'hite inhabitants are chiefly farmers, and there are few slaves. 

820. In these states the land is not generally well cultivated ; but the prod¬ 
ucts are rich. In the states South of Virginia, there are few manufactures 
except in families; and their commerce is carried on chiefly by the ships 
and merchants of the Northern States. 

II, 810. Of the Apalacliian table land in these states.? 811. Where is the 
Hot Region ? What are its productions .? 812. Wliat can you say of the climate 
in the United States, coujpared with countries in the same latitude .? Why is it 
variable .? {Sec IF 721.) 

I, *^13. Who originally inhabited the United States ? Where are 

they now i 814. By whom were the states settled .? How many African slaves 
are there.? 815. What can you say of the people North and East of Maryland ? 
816. Of their industry, agriculture, m.anufactures.? What part of them carry on 
fisheries and commerce.? 817. What is their condition in states North of the 
Ohio.? 818. What is‘said of the rivers and canals of the West.? 819. What 
states have planters and slaves.? What is said of the planters? Of the slaves.? 
820 . How is agriculture here.? Manufactures.? Commerce.? 




182 


NORTH AMERICA 


SEAT OF GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 



(85) View of Washington. 


I. 821. The District of Columbia is a tract of land ten 
miles square, lying on both sides of the Potomac River. 
It belongs to tlie government of the United States, and is 
the residence of its principal officers. 

822. Washington is the capital of the United States, 
and contains the Capitol, or building in which Congress 
meet, the President’s House, and the central public offices 
of the United States. 

l, Map of the D. of Columbia. {See Polit. Map of U. Slates.) — On 
■what river does the District of Columbia lie ? What state encloses it on 
the N-hZ. and S-E. ? What on the S-W. and W. ? What is its capital ? 
What two other cities in the District ? 

II. 823. The District of Columbia has a waving surface.^ and a 
barren soil; but its situation is fine, and its climate healthy.* 

m. 824. This District was formerly a part of the states of Mary¬ 
land and Virginia; but was given up by them to the United States. 
It is now governed by the President and Congress. 


* As the questions on the description of each country would be merely a repe 
tition of the words in Italic letters, as Surface, Soil, Climate, &.C., and almost the 
same in every instRnce, they will he omitted hereafter. 



























MAINE. 


183 


825. It is chiefly ocevpied by cities. The inhabitants of Alexandria 
and Georgetoion are engaged in commerce, and large vessels come up 
the Potomac to the U. S. Navy-Yard. Washington is the seat of the 
public business of the United States ; the residence of the public offi¬ 
cers and foreign ambassadors; and, during half the year, of the 
members of Congress, the judges of the Supreme Court, and many 
other distinguished men. 

Xa Polit. Map of U. States, and Map 57, p. 79. Which are the states 
whose chief productions are grass and gi-ain ? {See Ti 220, p. 77.) Which 
of these states lie E. of tlie Hudson River ? How are the Eastern States 
bounded ? 

EASTERN, OR NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
MAINE. 



(86) Lumber Vessel on the Coast of Maine. 


I. 8*26. Maine is the largest state in New England, but 
the last settled, and the most thinly inhabited. The greater 
part of it is still covered with forests ; and lumber is the 
chief export, which the people convey to other countries, in 
their own ships. 

I, 3Icsp of E. States. — How i» Maine bounded? What is its «*pital, 
and where ? What can you say of Maine ? 826.) What is its chief 

export ? 

ZS. 827. Maine has a high rocky coast, indented xvitli numerous 
bays and harbors. The surface is rugged, and in some parts moun¬ 
tainous ; and it abounds in lakes, and in rivers which are generally 
too rapid for navigation. 

828. The soil is productive in the interior. The climate is cold ; 
and it is better adapted to pasturage than tillage. 


















184 


NORTH AMERICA.. 


II ■ * What mountains are there in Maine '( Mention the rivers in their 
order, beginning at the East. What is the rank of each ? What lakes 't 
Are there any bays and islands on the coast of Maine ? 

III. 829. Manufactures are few; but Maine is among the first 
states in the Union for shipping. Some of its vessels are employed 
in conveying ice to hot countries. 

III. What seaports do you find on the coast ? Where is Eastport ? What 
towns on the Penobscot River? What on the Kennebec? On the Andros- 
coggin ? 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 



(87) White Mountains. 


I. 830. Neto Hampshire is remarkable for the White 
Mountains, whose peaks are among the loftiest in the Apa- 
lachian chain, and are covered with snow for the greater 
part of the year. They can be seen at a great distance on 
the ocean; and serve as a landmark to sailors. 

I. Map of E. States. — How is New Hampshire bounded ? What is its 
capital ? Wliat river rises in the N., and bounds it on the W. ? For what 
is New Hampshire remarkable ? (IT 830.) 

II. 831. JVew Hampshire is level on the coast ; but the interior 
is a rugged mountain land, abounding in lakes. 

832. The soil of New Hampshire is productive in some parts; 
but tliis state is best fitted for pasturage, and a large part of it is still 
covered with forests. It abounds in valuable mines and quannes. 


* In the exercises on the maps for the United States, the student should generally 
consult the map of that division which contains the state ; as, for Maine, &c., 
the map of the Eastern Division ; for New York, <fcc., that of the Northern Di- 
vision; and for North Carolina and the following states, that of the Southern 
Division of the United States. 

























VERMONT. 


185 


H« Where are the White Mts. ? What rivers flow from these moun¬ 
tains, and in wliat states do they empty ? What large lake in New Hamp¬ 
shire ? 

III. 833. Its mamifactures are increasing; but its sea-coast and 
commerce are limited. The products of its dairies, forests, mines, and 
quarries, are its chief exports. 

III. What seaports are marked in New Hampshire ? Where does the Merri¬ 
mack River empty What towns upon it.? What towns on the Connecticut 
River ? 


VERMONT. 



(88) Raft on Lake Champlain. 

I. 834. Vermont is the only state of New England 
which does not touch upon the sea; but it is bordered by 
Lake Champlain, on which its lumber is exported, on rafts, 
to the St. Lawrence and the Hudson Rivers. 

l, Map of E. S. —'How is Vermont bounded ? What river on the E. ? 
What lake on the W. ? What is tlie capital ? Does Vermont touch upon 
the sea ? (IT 834.) How are its products exported ? 

SI. 83.5. Vermont is traversed by the Green Mountains, which 
give it a mountainous and rugged surface. It has two declivities; 
one whose streams are connected with Lake Champlain, while 
those of the other flow into the Connecticut River. 

886. Its soil is productive and well watered. Its climate is tliat 
of the interior, already described, (H 804,) severe in winter and hot 
in summer. It contains valuable mines and quatries of marble. 

II, What mountains pass through Vermont? What rivers empty into 
L. Champlain ? What lake on the northern boundary ? What river flows 
from L. Champlain into the St. Lawrence ? 

m. 837. The people of Vermont are more engaged in pasturage. 



















186 


NORTH AMERICA. 


especially of sheep, than in tillage. Manufactures are chiefly in 
families. The chief exports are the products of its forests, mines, and 
dairies, which are sent abroad, in boats, by the lake and river that 
bound it. 

III. What towns on Lake Champlain ? What on Otter Creek ? What towns 
on Connecticut River ? What town in the south-western corner ? (Bennington 
is celebrated for a battle in the Revolution.) 

MASSACHUSETTS. 



(89) Boston. 


I, 838. Massachusetts is the oldest and most thickly 
settled state in the Union. Boston, its capital, is the largest 
and most commercial city in New England. It is situated 
on a peninsula, approached, on all sides but one, by means 
of bridges; and is remarkable for the State House, in 
which the legislature meet, overlooking a beautiful square 
called the Common, and for the neighboring monument of 
the battle on Bunker Hill. 

I, Map of E. S. — How is Massachusetts bounded? What is its cap¬ 
ital ? How is it situated ? (IT 838.) For what is it remarkable ? 

IS. 839. The surface of Massachusetts is generally rough and 
irregular. The only level portions are in the valley of the Connecticut 
River, and on a part of the coast But its soil is productive, and 
in tlie river-valleys very fertile. The climate is damp and chilly on 
the coast, but dry and healthy in the interior. 

840. Massachusetts is crossed by two ranges of highlands, as 


















MASSACHUSETTS. 


187 


represented in the following profile; and its western comities lie in 
part on a table land. 



(90) Profile of Massachusetts, on the Line of the Boston and Albany 

Raihoay. 


Exercises on the Profile. — How do you ascend and descend in going 
Prom Boston to Albany ? What places do you pass ? What is the lowest 
point ? Which is the highest ? How high is the highest point between 
Boston and the Connecticut R. ? How high is Worcester above the level 
of the sea ? ( See the scale of feet on the right hand, of which each division 

is 200 feet.) How high is Brookfield ? Which is the highest towTi on the 
profile 1 Which part of the state appears to be a table land ? 

Note. — It \%fill be a profitable exercise to examine and describe all pro¬ 
files in the same manner 5 and to compare the profiles with the map, in 
orde* to ascertain the situation of places and the elevation of different parts 
of a country. 

22. What rivers are there in Massachusetts? What mountains are 
there in tlie western part ? What other mountains do you find ? What 
bays E. of Massachusetts ? What capes ? What islands S-E. of it ? What 
bay and sound ? Does it touch on Narragansett Bay ? 

STS. 841. In manufactures and commerce, Massachusetts is among 
the first states in the Union. Its fisheries are more extensive than 
those of any other state, and its ships are found in every quarter of 
the globe. 

842. The schools and literary institutions of Massachusetts are cele¬ 
brated, and its citizens are distinguished for their enterprise and public 
spirit. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest, and one of 
the most celebrated colleges in the United States. 

Ill- How is Boston, the capital, situated ? (See plan of Boston on the Physical 
Map of the United States.) What town is N. of it.’ Wliat S..’ What place East, 
on an islandWhat railways run from it.’ What seaports N. of Boston.’ 
W^hicli is the largest of these towns.’ What seaports on Cape Cod Bay and the 
peninsula.’ AVhat seaport on Buzzard’s Bay.’ What on the Island of Nan¬ 
tucket ? (Tt is celebrated for the number of its whaling ships.) 

Where is Cambridge .’ Where is Worcester.’ What towns on Connecticut 
Kiver.’ What among the mountains in the W..’ WTiat places are connected by 
the railway which passes through Massachusetts from the E. to the W..’ To 
what places on the South do railways run from Boston, Worcester, Springfield, 
and Pittsfield 





188 


NORTH AMERICA. 


RHODE ISLAND. 

I. 843. Rhode Island is the smallest state in the Union. 
It consists chiefly of the shores and islands of Narragansett 
Bay, represented on the following map. 

I, Map E. S. — How is Rhode Island bounded on the N. and E. ? On the 
S. ? On the W. ? What bay does it contain 1 Where are the two chief 
towns, Providence and N ew- 
port 1 {Providence is on 
Pawtucket River, at the 
head of Narragamett Bay.) 

What can you say of Rhode 
Island? (IT 845.) Of what 
does it consist ? 

II. 844. The surface 
in the southern part is 
level and sandy, and in 
the northern hilly. The 
soil of the islands, and 
some portions of the 
coast, is remarkably fer¬ 
tile, and tlie scenery 
beautiful. 

845. The climate is 
maritime (H 480) and 
mild; and on this ac¬ 
count it is the resort 
of many strangers for 
health, in the summer 
season. 

II, What islands do you 
find in Narragansett Bay ? 

What river empties into it ? 

What towns on that river ? 

What other towns on Narra¬ 
gansett Bay? What island (91) Map of Narragansett Bay. 

lies S. of Rhode Island? 

{See Map of the Eastern States.) 

III. 846. Rhode Island surpasses every other state in manufac¬ 
tures, in proportion to its population; and its commerce is valuable. 
Jlffriculture is not in a very flourishing state, except in the islands, 
which have been called the garden of New England. 

847. This state is traversed by the great raiheay, extending, in a 
south-western direction, from Maine, through Providence, to Stoning- 
ton in Connecticut, and continued through Long Island to New York. 
The Blackstone Canal connects Worcester with Providence. 


























CONNECTICUT. 


189 


CONNECTICUT. 



(92) Yale College. 


I. 848. Connecticut is a small state, but distinguished for 
the number and character of its literary institutions. It 
has three colleges — at New Haven, Hartford, and Middle- 
town. Yale College, at New Haven, is one of the oldest 
and most distinguished in the United States. 

This state is traversed by the Connecticut River, whose 
banks abound with beautiful scenery. 

2. Map of E. States. — How is Connecticut bounded? Which of its 
two capitals is on the Connecticut R.? Which on Long Island Sound? 
What can you say of Connecticut ? (If 848.) What colleges has it? 

IS. 849. The surface of Connecticut is generally uneven or 
hilly. The soil is not generally rich, but the valleys of the rivers 
are fertile. Pasturage is good, and agriculture productive. 

II, What large river passes through Connecticut? What rivers in 
the eastern part of the state ? What are in the western part ? In what 
mountains does tlie Housatonic River rise ? What large island is opposite 
the southern coast of Connecticut ? What point do you pass in coming 
from the Atlantic Ocean into the East end of Long Island Sound ? What 
island ? 

III. 850. This state has a great variety of mamifactures^ which 
are carried to other states and countries in considerable quantities. 

851 . It has good harbors, and a considerable number of vessels en¬ 
gaged in \he fisheries, and in commerce on the coast and the ocean. 

III. What towns do you find on the sea-coast of Connecticut ? What on the 
Connecticut River 1 What on the Housatonic River t What West of the Housa¬ 
tonic What on the River Thames.^ How far N. does the canal extend from 
New Haven ? Where do the railways of Connecticut begin and end ? With 
what railway in Massachusetts are they connected ? 
























190 


NORTH AMERICA, 


MIDDLE GRAIN STATES. 

I. Polit. Map of U. States, and Map SI, p. 79. — Where do the Grain 
States lie ? (IT 220, p. 77.) Which of these states lie between the Eastern 
States on the E., and the states on the Ohio (Ohio and Kentucky) on the 
W. ? How ajre the Middle or Central Grain States bounded? {See also 
IT 223 and 224, p. 78.) 

NEW YORK. 



(93) Citij of New York. 

I. 852. New York is one of the largest and most popu¬ 
lous states in the Union; and the city of New York excels 
every other American city in population and commerce. 

I. Map of the Northern Division of U. S. — How is New York bounded 
on the N-W. and N. ? What lake and states bound it on the E. ? How is 
it bounded on the S. ? On the W. ? What river runs through the eastern 
part? What is the capital, lying on the Hudson River? On what part of 
tliis river is the city of New York ? What can you say of the state of New 
York ? (IT 852.) What of the city of New York ? 

H. 853. The northern and eastern parts of Neiv York resemble 
New England in the ruggedness of the surface and tlie unpro¬ 
ductiveness of the soil. 

854. The central and ivestern parts lie on the Apalachian table 
land, which spreads here into a broad surface, abounding in lakes, 
and is very fertile. 

855. This portion of the state is traversed by the Erie Canalj 































NEW JERSEY. 191 


which is one of the longest in the world. The following profile 
of this canal shows the elevation of the surface. 



(94) Profile of the Erie Canal. 


Exercises on the Profile. — How high do you rise in passing from Albany 
to the tal)le laud, by the Erie Canal ? How do you rise and descend, and 
what places do you pass, on the way to Buffalo ? 

85(j. New York contains valuable salt springs and mines of iron ^ 
and some of the most celebrated mineral springs in the world, at 
Ballston and Saratoga, 

II, What considerable branch has the Hudson River ? What small 
lakes in the state of New York S. of Lake Ontario I Into what river of 
L. Ontario do their Vv’aters flow ! VV’^herc does the Oswego River empty I 
What river N. of this empties into Lake Ontario ? What river W. of the 
Oswego ? What river connects laike Ontario ^vitii Lake Erie ? Where is 
Cliataiujue Lake, in tlie western part of New York ? What rivers flow S. 
from the southern p-irt of New York ? Y/hat lake in the eastern part of 
New York empties its waters into Lake Champlain '? What river at Platts- 
burg 1 W^hat mountains are there in the south-eastern part of the state 1 

IZX, 857. Jhjrkithure is well conducted in New York, and it may 
be called one of the granarie.s of the Union. Manufactures are exten¬ 
sive and valuable. Its commerce., both with the interior and foreign 
countries, exceeds that of an_y other state in the Union. 

III. MoHtion some of tlie principal towns on the Hudson River below Alba¬ 
ny. Where is West Point {Tke Military School of the United States is at West 
Point.) Wlint towns above .Albany on the Hudson River What on Lake 
Champlain.^ Whore are Mie forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point!* What 
towns do you find on the St. Lawrence RiverWhat on the eastern shore of 
Lake Ontario ? On the southern shore ? 

What canal connects the Hudson River witii the small lakes in the interior of 
New York, and with Lake Erie.^ Mention the towns on this canal, beginning at 
Albany, and going W. Wlnit towns do you find on each of the small lakes? 
What towns on the Genesee River? What on the branches of the Snsquehannah 
River? What places are connected by canals and railways in this part of the 
state? Wliat city on the western p:irt of Long Island? What towns in other 
parts ? (See Map of E. States.) 


NEW JERSEY. 

I. 858. New Jersey has a number of valuable literary 
institutions; and Nassau Hall, at Princeton, which is repre¬ 
sented in the engraving (95), was one of the first colleges 
founded in the United States. 

859. The falls of the Passaic River at Paterson, in New 
Jersey, are among the most beautiful in the United States. 

9 
















192 


NORTH AMERICA. 


They furnish the moving power for extensive manufac¬ 
tures, and a large town has risen up around them. 



(^5) Nassau Hall. 


Xm Miip of N. Division .—il low is New Jersey bounded ? What river 
Ibrnis its western border? What is its capital, lying on the Delaware? 
What is rein irk ihlc in Nesv Jersey / {*■ d5B, d.yj.) 

IE. The fiouthern part of New Jersey is level, sandy, and 

barren, and thinly inhabited. 77ie northern parts are rugged and 
mountainous, but productive. The middle 7'e^ion is level or undu¬ 
lating, and exceedingdy fojtile. 

861. New Jersey is crossed by several canals and raiheays., 
which give it important inland commerce. The following profile 
of the Morris Canal muII show the surface of the northern part 
of this state. 



Exercise. — Describe the surface of New Jersey, on the line of the Morris 
Canal, as shown on the profile. 

862. The climate of New Jersey varies, being cold in the north¬ 
ern highlands, mild in the middle region, and warm in the sandy 
plains of the southern part. Ml parts produce the grains and fruits 



























PENNSYLVANIA. 193 

of the Temperate Regions. This state contains valuable mines 
of iron. 

ZZa Wiiat is the southern pojnt of New Jersey called? What cape at 
the mouth ot New York Biy ? What mountains pass through tlie north¬ 
western part? Has New Jersey any large rivers ? {The principal rivers 
are the Raritan R., passing by New Brunswick ; the Passaic, cm which Pat¬ 
erson is situated; and the Hackensack, tohich is near it.) 

III. B63. Jigriculture is \vell couductod in New Jersey ; manu¬ 
factures are censiderabht; and large quantities of the products of both 
are exported to other st ites. 

•864. From the tlatness of its coast, it lias lew good harbors; and 
most of its foreign commerce is carried on through Fhdadelphia and 
New York. 

ZI!> What places are there .South of riiil;ule!;;hi:iWhat harbors on the 
coast? What is th(j souflier!i cape, and what the Jiortheni, of this coa.st? What 
towns in the northern part ? What places are connected by the canals of New 
Jersey ? What by its railways ? 


PENNSYLVANIA. 



(97) Coed Mines of Pennsylvania. 

I. SR’S, ^cnnsi/lcania is one of t!ic iiirgest and most 
populous of the United St.ites. It contains inexhaustible 
mines of iron and coal, and supplies many other states 
with fuel. 

!■ Map of N. Division. — How is Pemisylvaiiia bounded? What river 
on the E. ? What 1 irge river runs througli the middle of the state ? What 
is the capital, lying on the Su^uehannah ? What is the largest city, lying 
on the Delaware il. ? For what is Pennsylvania remarkable ? (TT 8G5.) 

SI. 860. Pennsylvania is traversed liy the Apalachian Moun¬ 
tains, which render its surface generally of a mountainous char- 






194 


NOKTH AMEIllCA. 


acter. The north-western and south-eastern portions, and some 
broad valleys of the streams, are level. 

8G7. The following profiles show the surface of Pennsylvania 
from Philadelphia to Columbia, on the line of the railway, and from 
Columbia to the Ohio River on the line of the canals and railways ; 
but the second (fig. 99) is on a diminished scale. 


6U0 

400 

200 

Fc. 



(98) Profile of the Railway from Philadelphia to Coh.tmhia. 



(99) Profde of the Canals and Railway from Columbia to Pittsburg. 


Exercise on the Profiles. — Describe the ascents and descents from Phil¬ 
adelphia to Columbia, and mention the places on the way. Describe the 
course from Columbia to the Ohio River. 

8G8. 7'he soil of this state is generally fertile; and it is better 
cultivated tlian almost any otlier in the Union. 

8G9. The climate is cold in the North, mild in the South, and 
generally temperate and healthy. Us productions are abundant, 
and its fruits are very fine. 

II> What branch enters Delaware R. at Philadelphia? (The Lehigh 
enters the Delaware at Easton.) What branches has the Susquehannah ? 
What great river passes out from the western part of Pennsylvania into the 
Mississippi ? What two branches form the Ohio ? What ranges of moun¬ 
tains pass through this state ? 

m. 870. Agriculture is better conducted in this state than in 
most parts of the Union. Manufactures are also numerous and im¬ 
portant. 

871. The foreign commerce of Pennsylvania is not great in propor¬ 
tion to its size. It is traversed by excellent roads, and by a system 
of canals and railways, Avhich connect all parts of the state, and ren¬ 
der its inland commerce extensive and valuable. 

III. What, towns on the Schuylkill ? What towns in the southern part of the 
state? What is the largest town in the western part of the state, and how situ- 













DC LA WARE. 


:>f ARYL AND. 


195 


ated What places S. W. of Pittsburg.? Where is Meadville? WTiat towns 
on the Susquehannah .? What on the Delaware? What rivers of Pennsylvania 
have canals running along their banks? What rivers and places are connected 
by other canals ? Where do you find railways, and what places do they connect ? 


DELAWARE. 



(100) Delaware and Chesapeake Canal. 


I. 872. Delaware is remarkable for the canal and rail¬ 
way which cross it, from the Delaware River to Chesapeake 
Bay ; and for its extensive and valuable flour mills and man¬ 
ufactories, which are chiefly on the Brandywine Creek. 

I, Map of N. Division. — Mention the boundaries and capital of Dela¬ 
ware. How does Delaware compare with other states in size? For what 
is it remarkable? (IT 872.) 

II. 873. Delaware is the smallest state of the Union, except 
Rhode Island. Us surface is generally level or waving. The soil 
is fertile, and produces wheat in great abundance. 

II, Map of N. Division. — On what bay does Delaware lie 7 What 
cape has it ? What are its principal towns ? 

MARYLAND. 

i. 874. Baltimore is the chief city of Maryland, and 
one of the largest and most commercial places in the United 
States. It is remarkable for the lofty pillar erected as a 

monument to Washington. 

I. Map of N. Division. —bay divides Maryland? How is it 
bounded on the N. ? How on the E., S., S-W., and W. ? What is ita 












19G 


NORTH AMERICA. 


capital ? Where is Baltimore ? What is the chief city of Maryland ? 
(IT 874.) For what is it remarkable ? 



(101) City of Baltimore. 


II, 87.5. Maiyland is divided into tAvo portions by Chesapeake 
Bay. TJie eastern pari, and the shores of the bay, are moist and 
unhealthy. The ivestern part is hilly or mountainous in the in¬ 
terior, and very healthy. 

876. The soil is generally rich, and produces abundantly the 
finest Avheat and tobacco. 77ie climate is so mild, tliat cotton is 
raised in the soutliem parts. 

II. What river empties into Chesapeake Bay from the N. ? Wliat river 

bounds Maryland on the S. W. ? What mountains pass through it ? Does 
any part of it lie on the Apalachian table land ? (*SVe y 768.) ' 

III. 877. The numerous branches and rivers of Cliosapcake Bay 
furnish this state with great advantages for inland nari(ration. 

878. J1 canal is also commenced, passing through Maryland, from 
the Potomac River at Georgetown, to the Ohio River at Pittsburo-, 
and is connected with Baltimore by a railway. Tlie followino- profife 
shows the ascents and descents on the route. “ 



Baltimore.? What on the eastern shore of 
Chesapeake Bay ? What on the Potomac, towards the S.? 















VIRGINIA. 


197 


VIRGINIA. 



(103) The She 7 utndoah River at Harper's Ferry, and United States Armory. 

I. R79. Virginia is the largest state in the Union, and 
among tlie first in ]) 0 [)ulation. ^1 ne Shenandoah Iviver 
passes thianigh a rocky chasm in the Blue itidge at Harper s 
Ferry, in this state, and presents a scene of great sublimity. 
One of the manufactories of arms belonging to the United 


States is situated here. 

r. Map of N. Division. — How is Virginia bounded on the N. and N-E. ? 
On the E .'! On the S. ? On the VV. ? On the N-W. ? What is its cap¬ 
ita], and where ? What is there remarkable at Harper’s Ferry ? (TT 879.) 
Where is it ? 

JT 880. The Apalachian Mountains and table land cover the 
middle section of this slate, and give it a rugged surface. The 
eastern and loestern terraces of these mountains are waving; and 

the lowland is perfectly flat. ^ • 

8^1 The soil of Virtrinia is naturally very fertile in the interior 
but has been rendered barren by bad cultivation. The coact is 
generally sandy and ban-en, except the valleys of the streams 
832 'The climate is hot, moist, and unhealthy, in the lowland, but 
temperate and agreeable in the middle and upper country. Hence 
this state generally has the productions of the Temperate Regions, 
and, in the southern parts, tliose of the Warm Regions ^ 

833. Virginia has valuable mines of iron, coal, gold, and salt, 
and has celebrated mineral springs among the mountains. 

Tim What mountains pass through Virginia ? ^Vhat part of it is on the 






198 


NORTH AMERICA, 


Atlantic lowland and terrace? {See p. 173 ami Physical Map U. S.) 
What on the western terrace ? What part lies on the Apalachian table 
land ? What rivers run through it into Chesapeake Bay t What rivers 
flow into the Ohio R. from this state 

ZIX. 884. Agric^dture is not well conducted ; but large quantities 
of wheat and tobacco are exported. Manvfactures are inconsid¬ 
erable ; and few of the people are employed in commerce. 

III. What is the chief seaport of Virginia, lying on the soutliern part of 
Chesapeake Bay 1 What place is opposite to Norfolk ^ What canal from it i 
What town at the mouth of James River on the N. side ? What places at the 
mouth of York River ? What places do you find on the railway from the Poto¬ 
mac R. and Washington to N. Carolina i What among the mountains ? What 
springs in the mountains ? What three places on the Ohio ? What other towns ?. 

NORTH-WESTERN GRAIN STATES* 


Xa Map of N. Division .—Which are the North-Western Grain States,, 
or those lying on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and the lakes? (IT 223.y 
How are they bounded ? Which lie N. of the Oliio ? What one S. of the- 
Ohio ? Which are W. of the Mississippi ? 

OHIO. 



(104) Cincinnati. 

I. 885. Cincinnati, the chief city of Ohio, is a lar^ 
and flourishing place, the most populous and commercial in 
the North-Western States. 

Xa Map of N. Division. — How is Ohio bounded ? "What river bounds 
it on the S. ? What lake on the N. ? What is its seat of government or 
capital ? Where is Cincinnati ? What is said of it ? (TT 885.) 

II. 886. The surface of Ohio is generally level and nowhere- 
mountainous. The eastern and south-eastern portions are hilly. T/ie 










INDIANA. 


199 


whole slide lies on a terrace, or low table land, from 600 to 900 feet 
above the sea: as may be seen in the following section of tlie 
canal from the Ohio River to Lake Erie. 



(105) Profile of the Ohio and Erie Canal. 

Describe the ascent and descent of the land between the Ohio River and 
Lake Erie, as represented on this profile. 


887. The soil is remarkably fertile; and nearly the whole of it 
can be cultivated. The climate is temperate; and the ordinary 
productions of the Temperate Regions are rich and abundant. 

888. Large numbers of horses, cattle, and swine, are raised in the 
woods and meadows, and exported to other states. 

XJ-m Has Ohio any mountains ? What rivers of this ^tate empty into 
Lake Erie ? What into tlie Ohio R.'/ On what terrace does this state lie 1 
{See^m.) 

221. 889. Manufactures are more extensive than in any other of 
the Western States; and the commerce with the Eastern and South- 
Western States is very valuable. 

890. The population &f Ohio has increased with uncommon rapidity ; 
and this state ranks among the first in the Union. It is crossed by 
canals and raiheays, connecting the Ohio River with the lakes. 

7.L1-, Where is Cincinnati, the largest town in Oliio? What places on the 
Ohio River above Cincinnati'’ What places on Lake flrie ? What on the 
Muskingum R. What on the Scioto.^ 'I'he Miami? The Maumee? What 
place.s are connected by canals in Ohio? What towns upon them ^ 


INDIANA. 

i« 891. Indiana is remarkable for its immense prairies 
in the North,'covered with grass several feet in height, 
which sometimes takes fire, and destroys buildings and cattle 
in its flames. 

I, Map of N. Division. —.How is Indiana bounded? What is its cap 
ital ? For what is Indiana remarkable ? (II 891.) 

XJ. 892. The surface of Indiana is level or waving towards 
tlie North, but hilly on the Ohio River. The soil is extremely fertile. 
27te climate is temperate; and this state is rich in the products of 
pasturage and tillage. 

Zla What river in Indiana empties into the Ohio ? What branches has 
the VVabash ? What river rises in Indiana and flows into L. Erie ? Are 
there any mountains ? 





200 


NORTH AMERICA 


XZX. B93. The rivers furnish inland navigation to every part of it, 
and channels of trade to the lakes on the North, and the Mississippi 
on the South, A system of canals and railways has been com¬ 
menced, to connect the branches of the Mississippi with those of the 
St. Lawrence. 

JII, What town on the Ohio R. ? What on the Wabash on the E. ? What 
rivers are connected by a canal on the N-E. ? W^hat towns on the canal ? W^hat 
town on Lake Michigan ? 

ILLINOIS. 



(106) A 'Prairie. 

I, 894. IJUnois is remarkably level, and more than half 
Its surface is covered with prairies, like those of Indiana. 

I. Map of N. Division. — How is Illinois bounded ? What river bounds 
it on the S. ? What on the W. 1 What on tlie E. ? What is the capital ? 
What is the surface of Illinois ? (IF 89f.) 

IX. 895. Its soil is excellent, hut some parts are not well wa¬ 
tered. The 'prairies furnish rich pasturage; and cattle are raised 
in great numbers. The climate is temperate; and, in the South, 
quite warm. 

II. What rivers empty into the Mississippi from Illinois? What into 
Lake Michigan ? Wliat rivers are united by a canal ? 

ZII. 896. It contains mines of lead which are among the richest 
in the world ; and abounds in coal. The products of its mines, pas¬ 
tures, and fields, are exported in large quantities, through the Ohio and 
Mississippi Rivers. 

III. . What towns do you find in Illinois, on the Ohio II. ^ What on the Kas- 
kaskias What on the Mississippi What on the Illinois, and the canal to L. 
Michigan ^ Mention some of the towns in the interior. 


























MICHIGAN. 


201 


MICHIGAN. 



(107) Progress of Improvement. 


I» 897. Michigan consists of two peninsulas, separated 
by the Straits of Michiliinackinac. It is thus almost sur¬ 
rounded by the lakes, wiiich give it great advantages for 
trade, and is rapidly improving in regard to settlements, 
and the means of communication by roads, railways, and 
steamers. 

In How is Michigan bounded ? {A part of Michigan lies between L. 
Michigan and Lake Superior.) What is its capital, and where ? Of what 
does Michigan consist ? ( IT 897.) Wiiat advantages does this give it, 
and why ? 

U. 898. The southern peninsula, between Lake Huron and 
Lake Michifran, contaitts the cliief settlements. The interior is a 
table land, about 900 feet above the level oi‘ the sea, or 300 above 
the lakes. 

On the bordars of Lak - Mf.' igae, ti.ere are ininy tracts of sand, which is 
raided iato hills, and changes its surface wath the wind. 

899. The soil is generally fertile. The climate is temperate and 

healthy, and this state produces the grains and fruits of the tem¬ 
perate^ R^egions in abundance. 7 , 

900. 7Vie northern peninsula, between Lake Michigan and HaKe 
Superior, is a rugged, cold region, scarcely settled, and little 

901. Most parts of this state are covered with forests; but it 
also contains prairies. 

Are there any mountains in Michigan ? What lakes does it touch 

upon ? 

001^. JMichigan is rapidly increasing in population and tradi. 























NORTH AMEKICA, 



Important canals and railways have' been commenced, and sever.iJ 
colleges founded. 

Ilia Where is Detroit? What towns on and near Lake Michigan? What 
railway in Michigan ? W’^hat towns on it ? Are there any towns in the North r 
{Mat.kinaio is on the straits leading into L. Superior.) 

WISCONSIN TERRITORY. 


(1C8) Travelling in the Forests at Night. 

I. 903. Wisconsin is a largo territory, lying between 
Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. Its settlements 
are chiefly in the southern parts; and, in many districts, 
travellers are still compelled to lodge in the woods at night. 

Xa Map of N. Division. — Where is Wisconsin Territory? (TT 903.) 
How is this territory bounded ? (See Political Map of the U. S.) What 
is the capital, midway between Lake ivlicl»i;)au and the Mississippi ? How 
are travellers obliged to lodge in some parts, and v. hy ? (Tf 903,) 

II. 904. The surface of Wisconsin is very various. The soil 
of the southern part is fertile, and it is rapidly filling up with 
settlements. 

905. The northern part is uneven and rugged, and contains a 
table land, abounding with shallow lakes and swamps. These pro¬ 
duce a kind of grain called wild rice, or wild oats, which is an 
important article of food among the Indians, and is gathered from 
the stalks into their canoes. 

90G. Wisconsin contains valuable mines in the South-West, 
especially those of lead, which have long been wrought. 

II. VV'hnt rivers uro vbere in Wisconsin ? What hills ? What bay in 









IOWA. 203 

the North ? What river, emptying into it, rises near Wisconsin R. ? W^hat 
lakes and rivers are there on the N-E. 1 

HI. What towns on Lake Michigan? What on the Mississippi River? 
What in the interior ? In what two ways can exports be sent from Wisconsin to 
seaports ? 

IOWA. 



(109) Emigrants in a newly-settled State. 


I. 907. Iowa lies between the Mississippi and Missouri 
Rivers. Herds' of buffaloes still feed on its western 
prairies; but in consequence of the ricli products ot its 
soil and climate, and mines, settlers are going into it more 
rapidly than into any new state hitherto formed. 

2. Political Map of U. States. —By what river is Iowa bounded on the 
E. ? By what on the W. ? By what territory on the N. ? What state lies 
S. of it? Repeat ail the boundaries, and bordering states, in order. 
What is the capital ? 

SS. 908. The surface of Iowa is uneven. The valleys of the 
streams are covered with forests ; but the greater part of the terri¬ 
tory consists of prairies. 

909. The soil is very rich. The climate is favorable; and the 
productions of Temperate Regions are easily raised. 

II. What rivers are there in Iowa, emptying into the Mississippi ? 
What into the Missouri ? What river runs towards the North ? 
lakes empty into it and form a part of its sources ? ^Vhere does the Red 
River empty? {See Map of N. America.) Vyhat lakes give nse to the 
Mississippi ? Wliat coteau, or ridge of land, in the western part of the 
state ? 

IIS 010. The south-eastern part contains valuable minerals, 
especia’lly lead ore. Dubuque is an old settlement formed by the 

French, for the purpose of working the lead mines. mu. 

911. Ji large part of Iowa is slill occupied by Indian tnbes; but 








204 


NORTH AMERICA. 


the south-eastern part contains many flourishing towns, and the white 
population is increasing with extraordinary rapidity. 

III. What towns has Iowa on tlie Mississippi R. ? What fort on the Missis¬ 
sippi.^ What fort W. of lovv'a on the Missouri.^ What towns are there in the 
interior? In what way can the people of Iowa convey their produce to seaports ? 


MISSOURI. 



(110) J^ead Alines in Alissoui'i. 


I. 912. The lead mines of ]\[issout'l were among the 
first which were wrought in the United States, and large 
quantities of this metal are exported. 

l. Map of N. Dwisij7i. — How is Missouri bounded? What great 
river passes througli it ? What is t’ne capital city, on the R. Missouri ? 

913. Missouri is fueneralbj a region of prairies and table 
lands, crossed by a part of the Ozarlc Mountains. 

914. A considerable portion of the soil is unproductive, but the 
valleys of tlie streams are very fertile. The pastures feed great 
numbers of cattle and swine. 

915. The climate, like that of other inland countries, has hot 
summers and severe winters. {See H 480.) It produces the grains 
and fruits of the Temperate Regions; and in the South, cotton 
may be cultivated. 

II. What mountains in the southern part of tliis state ? What branches 
of tlie Missouri in this state, on the S. ? V/hat on the N. ? What river© 
empty into the Mississippi ? What rivers flow out of this state on the S. E. ? 

m, 916. Missouri is one of the largest states in the Union, lying 
nearly in the centre of its territory, and rapidly increasing in pop¬ 
ulation, commerce, and iccalth. 

III. What towns are there on the Mississippi River ? Which of these is the 
largest in the state ? What towns on the Missouri River ? On the Osage ? 











KENTUCKY. 


205 


KENTUCKY. 



(Ill) Interior of a Limestone Cave. 


I. 917. Kentucky is a limestone country, or one whose 
soil lies on a bed of limestone rocks, which abound in 
chasms and caves. Some of the caves are adorned with 
columns of crystalline limestone, like those in the engraving. 
{See ^ 347—9.) The Mammoth Cave is one of the largest in 
the world, and contains a hotel in one of its great chambers. 

J. Map of N. Division. — How is Kentucky bounded? Wliat river 
bounds it on the N. ? What on the Vv^. ? Wliat is its cajhtal ? 

2X. 918. The surface of Kentucky is generally uneven. It rises 
into mountains on the East, and spreads into plains on the West. 
The soil is generally rich ; but the ivater sometimes sinks aAvay into 
tlie chasms and caves, and leaves the streams and the soil dry. 

919. The climate is mild and healthy; and the productions of 
temperate countries are abundant, especially wheat, hemp, and 
tobacco. 

920. It contains mines of iron and coal, and quarries of lime¬ 
stone in abundance. It has also salt springs and nitre caves, from 
which salt and nitre are made in considerable quantities. 

JlZ« Wliat mountains are therein Kentucky, and where? What rivers 
empty into the Ohio in this state ? What rivers flow out of the state, and 
return ? 

m. 921. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people. 
Manufactures are beginning to flourish. The great rivers on its bor¬ 
ders furnish peculiar advantages for commerce ; and this state erports 
cattle, and the products of the field, in large quantities, chiefly 
through New Orleans. 








2U6 


NORTH AMERICA. 


1X1, What arc some of the towns on the Ohio River? Which is the largest? 
What on the Licking E. ? ^Vhat on the Kentucky R.? On Salt R. ? On Ten¬ 
nessee R.? 

SOUTHERN AND SOUTH-WESTERN, OR 
COTTON STATES. 

X, Map of S. Division. — Where do the Cotton States lie ? (Ti 22G, p. 80.) 
How may they be divided? (TI 227.) Which are the Southern States? 
Which are the South-Western? Why are not Matydand and Virginia 
classed among the Southern States ? (IF 224.) 


TENNESSEE. 



(112) Tobacco Plantation. 


I. 92'2. Tennessee produces cotton and tobacco abun¬ 
dantly. They arc cultivated by slaves. 

1, Map of S. Division. — How is Tennessee hounded? VV'here is 
Nashville, the capital ? 

SS. 923. Tennessee is divided., by the Cumberland Mountains, 
into East and West 3^enne3.see, which differ in tlieir stirface and 
character. 

924. East Tennessee is an elevated, mountainous reo-ion, lying 
among the branches and outer ranges of the Apalachian Moun¬ 
tains. It abounds in fine scenery, and has been called the Switzer¬ 
land of the United States. 

925. The surface is, of course, rugged, and the .soil is fertile only 
in the valleys. The climate is temperate; and the productions 
resemble those of the Noithern States. 

926. West Tennessee has a level or waving surface. The soil is 
fertile, and the climate so warm as to produce cotton. 

ZXa Which part of Tennessee appears to be mountainous ? What river 
passes between the Cumberland and the .Vpalachian Mts. ? VV^hat course 












NORTH CAROLINA. 


207 


does the Tennessee River take after passing out of this state ? Does it re¬ 
turn into the state? What river in the northern part of Tennessee? 
Which part of the state appears to be level ? (f 926.) What river do you 
find there, emptying into the Mississippi ? 

m. 927. This state rests on limestone rocks, like Kentucky ; and 
contains salt springs, nitre caves, and many valuable minerals. 

928. Agriculture is the chief employment of the people ; and cattle 
and the products of the field are exported., to a large amount, chiefly 
through New Orleans. The manufactures of iron, hemp, and cotton, 
are considerable. 

Ill* What towns do you find in East Tennessee, on the Holston River ? 
What on the Tennessee River? What on the Cumberland River ? On the Ten¬ 
nessee River after it returns into this state at the W. ? Near the Mississippi 
River ? 


NORTH CAROLINA. 



(113) Pine Forest and Lumber Vessel. 


I, 929. North Carolina contains extensive pine plains, 
which produce lumber, turpentine, pitch, and tar. These 
articles, with rice, and cotton, and tobacco, are its chief 


exports. 

I. Map of S. Division. — How is North Carolina bounded? In what 


part of the state is Raleigh, Its capital ? 

12 930. North Carolina embraces a part of the lowland terrace 

and hio-hland of the Apalachian Mountains, (pp. 173, 174.) It 
has thus every variety of surface and soil, from the gram fields 
and rocks of the highlands, to the rice swamps and barrens ot the 

931. Its climate is generally warm, and the lowlands would yield 






















208 


NORTH AMERICA. 


most of f/ie productions of the Warm Regions; but tlieir culti¬ 
vation is neglected. 

932. Nortli Carolina has 7nines of iron; and others winch have 
furnished large quantities of gold. 

W'hat sounds oa tlie coast of JMorth Carolina ? Wdiat capes ? Men¬ 
tion the chief rivers, beginning at the North ? What rivers pass out of tliis 
state into South Carolina? What into Tennessee ? 

933. The coast is flat and sandy, with many sliallow inlets ; 
but the commerce of the state is very mucli limited by the want of 
good harbors. Manufactures have been recently established, and are 
said to be increasing. 

934. The mountains in the western part of this state contain the 
highest peaks of the Apalachian chain. 

XlXa What seaports has Nortli Carolina ^ Wliat towns on the Chowan River? 
On the Roanoke ? On the Tar River ? On the Neuse ? On Cape Fear River? 
What towns on the table land W. of the Blue Ridge ? What places are connect¬ 
ed by railways with Petersburg and the northern line of railway.s? 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 



(114) Rice Swamps. 


I. 935. South Carolina is remarkable for its immense 
swamps, which produce rice of the best quality. This plant 
requires to be covered with water during one period of 
its growth. 

o 

Z. Map of S. Division. — How is South Carolina bounded on the N. 
and N-E. ? On the S-E. ? On the S-W. ? Where is Columbia, its capital ? 

II. ^6. South Carolina is divided, like the other Southern 
States, into the lower, middle, and upper country; with a corre¬ 
sponding variety of surface and soil. 

















CEOliCilA. 


209 


037. The. climate is hot, and the chief productions are cotton and 
rice; these are exported in large quantities, and give this state a 
large share of commerce and wealtJi. 

II. What river separates S. Carolina from Georgia ? Mention the 
rivers, beginning at the E. Which appears to be the largest ? 

III. 9^58. Manufactures are chiefly in families. The harbor of 
Charleston gives it an opening for extensive foreign commerce., both in 
its own products, and those of neighboring states j but it has few 
ships of its own. 

939. One of the longest railicaijs in the United States connects 
Charleston with the Savannah River, and another connects it with 
the interior of North Carolina. 

III. Wltat seaports on the coast of South Carolina.^ Whicli of these is the 
largest cit}’ in the state ? To what places do the railways pass from Charleston ? 
Wljat water communication is there from the Santee River to Charleston harbor? 
What towns on the Great Pedee River and its branches? What on the Sa- 
vannali ? 


GEORGIA. 



(115) Cotton Field. 


I, 940. The most valuable product of Georgia is cot¬ 
ton, some of which is superior in quality to any other 
known. 

I, Map of S. Division. — How is Georgia bounded? What river sep¬ 
arates it from South Carolina ? What one from Florida on the South ? 
What river between Georgia and Alabama at the South ? In what part of 
^he state, and on what stream, is Milledgeville, the capital ? 

12. 941- Georgia has the same variety of surface., soil, and cli¬ 
mate,'as the other Southern States. {See p. 173, 174.j The high 
country is not extensive, but is very productive in northern grains, 





















210 


NORTH AMERICA. 


942. The loio country is sufficiently warm in the Soutli to pro¬ 
duce the sugar-cane. 

943. The high country contains gold mines; but tliey are of far 
less value to the people than tlieir cotton-fields. 

II, What rivers pass through Georgia? In what part of it do most of 
them rise ? Which part of the state appears to be mountainous ? What 
swamp do you find in the southern part I Has Georgia much sea-coast ? 

m. 944. Cotton is the chief article of cultivatioji in this slate. 
Manufactures are few j and commerce is carried on chiefly in northern 
ships. 

945. Several important railways have been constructed across this 
slate; and its resources and wealth appear to be increasing. 

III, What towns has Georgia on or near the sea i What on the Savannah 
RiverWhat on the Altamaha and its branches.^ What on the Chatahoochee? 
To what place does the railway extend from Au^sta.^ The railway from Sa¬ 
vannah i What towns in this state have colleges ? 

ALABAMA. 

I, 946. Alabama has its seaports and commerce on the 
Gulf of Mexico. It produces large quantities of cotton, and 
the rivers are navigated by numerous steamers, employed in 
conveying it to seaports. 

I, May of S. Division. — How is Alabama bounded ? Does any part of 
it extend to the Gulf of Me.xico ? Where is Tuscaloosa, the capital ? 

II. 947. Alabama is divided into the lower, middle, and upper 
country ; but its soil is more generally fertile tlian in the Soutliern 
Atlantic States; and it has fewer swamps and barrens. The 
Hver valleys are very fertile. 

948. Tb£ climate varies, from the hot and unhealthy lowlands, to 
the pleasant middle country, and the temperate highlands. Its 
productions embrace those of tlie Warm and Temperate Regions, 
but cotton is tlie most important. 

Ill Does any part of Alabama appear to be mountainous ? What stream 
runs through this part of the state ? What rivers rise here ? What river 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico at Mobile ? What branches form the 
Mobile R. ? What river separates Alabama from Western P'lorida ? 

ZIZ. 949. Alabama has a narrow sea-coast ; but contains one of 
the best harbors of this region, at Mobile. A sound, shut in by low 
islands, furnishes an inland passage for small vessels to New Orleans. 

950. The northern part of this state embraces the high country 
which forms the southern extremity of the Apalachian Mountains, 
and the valley of the Tennessee River; and by this stream, it has a 
channel of trade to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. 

951. Several canals and railways of importance have been made in 
Alabama, and others begun; and this state is scarcely surpassed by 
any in the Union, in its advantages for agriculture and commerce. 

TLTl. What seaports has Alabama ^ What towns on and near the Alabama 
River The Tombighee.? The Tennessee? Where do you find a canal and 
railway in the northern part of the state ? 


MISSISSIPPI. 


211 


FLORIDA. 

I. 952. The greater part of Florida consists of a penin¬ 
sula, extending to the borders of the Torrid Zone, with a 
narrow belt of land North of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Xa Map S. Div. — How is Florida bounded ? What is the capital ? Of 
what does it consist ? (IT 952.) Which part of it is a peninsula ? 

p. 953. Florida is extremely level and low; and a large part 
of it consists of the immense marshes called “ everglades f or of 
sand and pine plains. 

954. Among these are some higher tracts, called “ humnwcksf 
whicli are covered with fine timber, and are capable of cultivation. 

955. The climate is liot; and the productiom of tlie Hot Regions 
flourish here; but the crops are sometimes cut off" by the cold 
icinds from tlie North. The live oak timber is a valuable export 

IX j Wliat rivers do you find in Florida ? What lake ? 

IXl. 956. Florida lias seaports both on the Atlantic and the Gulf 
of Mexico ; and its rivers are numerous and navigable. It has thus 
great advantages for commerce; but only a very small portion of the 
territory is settled. 

III. What seaports, in Florida, on and near the Atlantic ? What on the 
Gulf of Mexico? 

MISSISSIPPI. 



(116) Ark and Steamboat, on the Mississippi River. 


I. 957. Mississippi takes its name from the great river 
on which it lies. This stream is continually traversed hy 
steamboats, which ascend and descend ; and by arks, or flat 
boats, which carry down the produce of the Western States 
to New Orleans, but never return, and are sold as lumber. 


























212 


NORTH AMERICA. 


Za Map iS*. JDiv. — How is Mississippi bounded ? What is its capital 7 
Wliat river runs alon^ its western border 1 What navigation on it ? 957.) 

II. 958. The northern part of Mississippi belongs to the middle 
country of the Southern States, and is uneven or hilly. 7^he banJcs 
of the river here rise into high bluffs, as represented in the pre¬ 
ceding engraving. 

959. The southern part belongs to the lowlands, (p. 173,) and 
abounds in pine plains and prairies, and in swamps which border 
the streams and tlie sea-coast. 

9G0. The soil of a large part of this state is fertile, the climate is 
warm, and the crops of cotton are abundant. But tlie people ob¬ 
tain iheiv provisions chiefly from the North-Western States. 

Zla Hoes any part of Mississippi appear to be uiountaiuous ! M\> what 

lowland does its soutliern part l)elong / (Nee Fhytical Map of U. N.) 
What rivers empty into the Gulf of Mexico ? What into the Mississippi ? 

HI. 9()l. Mississippi is icatcred by lumierjons streams, which are 
navioabh tor a couskierable part of their course. 

0(j2. The coast is lined with low islands, and is destituU' of good 
harbors. Its commerce is carried on by the ports on the Mississippi 
River, which is so deep that large ships ascend as far as Natchez. 
Manufactured articles are chiehy imported. 

III. Wliat town.s are there on tlie Gulf of iibcxioo.^ On the IMissi.ssi[)pi R. ? 
On the Yazoo River.'* On Pearl R. ? AVhat towns are tonnerted by railway? 
Where is Port Gibson i What towns on the South-West ? 

LOUISIANA. 



(117) Sugar-Cane Field, and Cane Mill. 


I. 963. Louisiana produces the sugar-cane, which is 
ground in mills. The juice is pressed out, and boiled into 
sugar. 






























ARKANSAS. 213 

!■ Map S. Via. — How is r.ouisiiiia bounded? What is its capital? 
What is one of its productions? (IF ybd.) 

X2!. Louisiana lies on tlie lower course, and the delta, of 

tlie Mississippi. A large part of it has been formed by the mud 
deposited from the water or the river; and the land is thus extend¬ 
ing every year. 

t)G5. it is crossed, in every direction, by tlie branches and outlets 
of the river; and a large portion of it consists of swamps. 

J'he soil is very fertile, where it can be cultivated; and tlie 
prairies furnish rich pastures. The climate and productions are 
those of the Hot Regions; and plants are green the whole year. 

Wliit part of Louisiana lies on the delta of the Mississippi ? What 
is a delta ? (Nee 410.) What lakes are there N. and E. of ]\ew Orleans ? 
What streams in the western part of the state ? What bays on the coast ? 

I2I. PG7. Sugar and cotton are the chief crops cultivated. Pro¬ 
visions, as well as manuficturcs, are chiefly obtained from abroad. 

fl()S. This state, and especially the capital, is the centre oi trade for 
the basin o^ he Mississippi River; and jXew Orleans is one of the 
first commercial places of America. 

969. A large part of the inhabitants of Louisiana are French; and 
this language is chiefly spoken. 

IXX. Are there any towns between New Orleans and the sea W^hat towns 
on the Mississippi R. above New Orleans i What towns are the principal E. of 
the Mississippi ? What W. of this river i What places have colleges ? 

ARKANSAS. 

I. 970. Arkansas is one of the largest of the-United 
States, but one of the most thinly settled. 

I, Map N. Div. — How is Arkansas bounded? What is its capital? 
What can you say of it? (TF 970.) 

SI- 971. It is level and marshy oji the Mississippi. !77ie western 
part is crossed by the Ozark Mountains, which give it an elevated 
and irregular surface, and a barren soil. 

I.X. What river borders Arkansas on the E.? What great river passes 
through its south-western comer ? Wliat one through the middle of the 
state ? What streams North of the Arkansas ? \Vhat South of it ? What 
springs on tlie Wachita River? 

ZjC*£. 97^- TVte streams are frequently dry in summer ; and salt 
plains occur, which render t/ze 'waters oi many rivers brackish. 

973. Arkansas contains extensive prairies, with rich pasturage, and 
a oreat deal of land which is fertile and fit for tillage. 

974. The climate is hot, and cotton is its chief product. Its forests 
contain valuable timber. 

975. Arkansas also possesses mines of iron, lead, coal, and salt, and 
valuable mineral springs. 

On what river is Little Rock What other towns on the Arkansas 
River?* What on the Mississippi? On Red River? 


214 


XORTH AMERICA. 


INDIAN TERRITORY. 

I. 976. 21ie Indian Territory extends from Texas to 
the Platte River, West of Missouri and Arkansas. It is now 
inhabited by Indians who formerly occupied the states East 
of the Mississippi. 

I. Polit. Map 14 States. — How is the Indian Territory bounded? 
What ports and towns do you find? Who occupy this territory ? (TT 976.) 

ZI. 977. The surface of this terntoi'y is very level, or gently 
waving, except on tlie South-East near the Ozark Mountains. 

978. The eastern portion, and many of the valleys of the streams, 
are productive either for pasturage or tillage. 

979. The western portion contains a part of tlie Great American 
Desert, and the barren regions bordering upon it, 

!£■ Phys. and Pont. Map of U. S. — What desert in the western part 
of the Indian Territory ? What peaks of the Chippewan Mts. ? VV'hat are 
the principal branches of the Missouri and the Mississippi in this territory ? 

Ill, 980, The Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Semi¬ 
nole Indians, and several smaller tribes, are noic settled in this ter¬ 
ritory. They are governed by their own laws and chiefs ; and the 
United States government assures them of a permanent residence here. 

981. The Cherokees, and several other tribes, have acquired a 
knotoledge of books and of Christianity, and tlie arts of civilization. 

982. Several missionary stations are maintained among them, by 
societies in the United States. 

MISSOURI TERRITORY. 



(118) Sioux hunting Buffaloes. 

I, 983. 3Iissouri Territory is enclosed between the Mis- 













OREGON TERRITORY. 215 

souri and the Chippewan Mountains, North of the Platte 
River. 

9^)4. It is little known, but it is generally a region of 
prairies, abounding in game, over which the Indians wan¬ 
der. They subsist chieliy by hunting buffaloes. 

Z. rolit. Map of U. States -Flow is Missouri Territory bounded? 

What iort on the Missouri ? How do the Indians subsist? (1i 984.) 

IZ. 985. Forests are found only on tlie borders of the moun¬ 
tains, or in the valle 3 ’-s of the streams which intersect tlie country 
in every direction. 

^tiys. and Polit. Map of the li. S. — Wliat streams do you find in 
Missouri Territory ? What part of it is occupied by the American Desert ? 
What hills separate the Yellow Stone River from the branches of the Mis 
souri, south-east of it ? 


OREGON TERRITORY. 



(119) Indians in their Canoes. 


I. 986. Oregon Territory extends from the Chippewan 
Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, forming the basin of the 
Columbia River. Sotne of the Indian tribes^ on this coast, 
have large fleets of canoes. 

I, Political Map of U. •—How is Oregon bounded? What set¬ 

tlements do you find ? 

_ H. 987. As already stated, (U 680,) Oregon is naturally divided 
into three portions, which differ materially in surface, soil, and cli¬ 
mate — the lower country, or lowland, on the coast, and two terraces 
risinxr above it 

^ 10 









216 


NORTH AAfERICA, 


988. The lowe)' country is very fertile, producing timber-trees of 
enormous size, and containing fine meadows and prairies for culti¬ 
vation. Its climate is also mild, and the ground is rarely frozen; 
but tlie summers are dry, and the crops liable to fail. 

The first terrace, or middle country, has also a mild but cool cli¬ 
mate, and produces good pasturage through tlie year; but is unfit 
for cultivation. The second terrace, or high country, is rocky and 
barren, and in many parts desert; and is unfit eitlier for cultivation 
or pasturage. 

IS. Fhy.^'. 3iap of U. Stales. — Wliat mountains ai'e there near the 
coast in Oregon ? (1! 677.) Wiiat in the interior ? (U 680.) Wliat is its 
chief river ? What ai*e the sources and branches of the Columbia R. on 
the N. ? W liat is its principal branch on t!;e S. ? What branch near the 
coast ? What capes at the mouth of the Columbia ? 

XXX. yS9. This terriLonj £s -ildw diiejly occupied by the Indian 
tribes, the forts and hunters of the British Hudson’s Bay Fur Com 
pany, and American trading and missionary seUlements, which are 
constantly increasing. 

SIX. PoUUcal JUap of U. stairs. — Wlint scfMcinents ami forts arc there on the 
Columbia H..^ Whet in other i)arts of Oregon ? 


TEXAS. 



I. 990. In the northern parts of Texas, wild horses are 
numerous, which graze together in large herds, and seem 






TEXAS. 217 

to have leaders and sentinels, like an army, to guard against 
dantjer. 

£. Polit. Map of U. States. —-How is Texas bounded? What is its 
capital ? For what is it remarkable ? (TT 990.) 

JI. 991. Texas consists of a lowland, terrace, and highlands, 
liko those of the Southern United States, rising gradually from tlie 
Gulf of Mexico. 

992. The coast is low and sandy ; and the harbors and mouths of 
the rivers are generally obstructed by bars and shoals. 

993. The surface of the lowlands is perfectly flat, and little ele¬ 
vated above tlie sea; and the ieirctce above it is level. 

994. Both lowlands and terrace are traversed by numerous streams^ 
navigable for a considerable distance. 

99.5. The streams flow in deep ravines, and are bordered by 
forests ; but the greater part of the country is covered with prairies, 
which yield fine pasturage. Those of tlie middle country, or ter¬ 
race, have a deep, fertile soil. 

993. The climate is hot, and produces fevers in the lowlands; 
but on the terrace., it is healthy. Snow and ice are rare; and the 
imnters are mild, but are subject to great changes, from the alter¬ 
nate nortlieriy and southerly Avinds. x 

997. The lowlands produce sugar, and cotton, and the fruits of 
warm countries. The terrace and highlands yield wheat, tobacco, 
and tlie grains and fmits of the Temperate Regions, in abundance. 

998. Mines of lead, copper, coal, salt, and also of silver, are 
said to exist, but have not been explored by the present inhab¬ 
itants. 

717. m W!nt mountains p iss through T'exas ? What are oii its western 
borders ? Wliat river bounds it on t:ie E. ? On the N. ? VVh:it are the 
principal rivers between the Sabine and the Kio del INorte ? VV'liat bays 
are tiiere on the co.ast ? 

ZII. 2 'eras was formerly a province of Mexico; but was set¬ 

tled bv emigrants from the United Stales, and became independent 
in 1836.* 

1000. The fiojfuhUion of Texas is still small, and its settlements are 
sca'/tered; but it is rapidly increasing, by emigrants from the United 
States. 

HZIa Wlmt seaports do you find in Texas.? Wliat arc tlie rivers beginning at 
the East.? What places lie between the River Trinity and the United States.? 
Mention the towns on each of the rivers in order. 


I5y a vote of its congress, it is to be annexed to the United States. 




218 


NORTli AMKKICA. 


SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 


MEXICO. 



(12]) Volcano of Jondlo. 

I. 1001. Mexico lies chiefly on a table land, which is 
crossed by a range of volcanoes. In one part of it, in 1759, 
n new volcano^ called Jorullo, which is 1600 feet Ihgh, was 
thrown up in a few days, besides many smaller ones 
around it. 


X. Political Map of U. States.— How is P.joxico bounded? What ia 
the capital ? What remarkable volcano in it ? (IF 1(X)1.) 

XS. 1002. The table land of Mexico is one of the most fertile 
and populous in the world. It is about 8000 feet ethove the level of 
the sea; and the land ascends and descends as in the proflle 122. 



(122) Profile of Mexico, from Vera Ci-uz to the Pacific Ocean. 
L.vercises on the Profile —i Is the city of Mexico on high or low ground ? 
Describe the ascents and descents in going from Vera Cruz to the Pacific 
Oce.in. Is any part of the course nearly level ? What cities do you pass 7 
VVJiat volcanoes will you see on the way ? 
























CENTRAL AMERICA. 


219 


1003. The table land of Mexico is so level, that carriages may be 
driven upon it from the capital to Santa Fe, a distance of 1200 
miles; but North of this, the country is rugged. 

1004. Thx soil is fertile, but not well watered. Its climate is 
temperate, and produces the grains and fruits of the Temperate 
Regions in abundance. 

1005. The declivities and lowlands of this table land have a fer¬ 
tile soi/, and every variety of climate and productions, from those 
of the Torrid Zone to those of the Temperate Regions. 

1006. Mexico is also rich in mines of gold and silver, and fur¬ 
nishes a large part of the silver which is used by other nations. 

II. What mountains pass through Mexico ? What peaks at the North ? 
What volcanoes in the middle regions ? What rivers has Mexico ? What 
gulf and peninsula on the Pacific Ocean ? 

m. 1007. Mexico is inhabited by Indians, Pdestizoes, and a small 
proportion of Spaniards. The northern parts are occupied chiefly by 
Indians. 

1008. The people are generally ignorant, indolent, and unskilful in 
agriculture and manufactures. The commerce is carried on chiefly by 
foreigners. 

1000. Yucatan contains the ruins of many fine cities, which were 
probably inhabited by the ancient Mexicans. 

III, Political Map of U. States. — What seaports has Mexico on the Gulf of 
Mexico.’ What seaport on the gulf is nearest to the capital.’ What on the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean .’ What cities S. of the capital, in the interior ? What between Mex¬ 
ico and the Tropic of Cancer.’ What are the principal cities N. of this line? 
Where is Santa Fe.’ What are the most northerly ports on the Pacific.’ What 
places on the peninsula of California.’ What islands S. of this peninsula? 


CENTRAL AMERICA, OR GUATEMALA. 

I, 1010. The forests of Central America abound with 
mahogany and logwood trees, and these valuable woods are 
cut and exported in large quantities at the British settle¬ 
ments on the Bay of Honduras. 

I. Folit. Map of N. America. — How is Central America bounded ? 
What is its capital ? For what is it remarkable 1 (IT 1010.) 

II. 1011. Central America is a mountainous region. It con¬ 
tains more than twenty volcanoes, and is subject to frequent earth¬ 
quakes and eruptions, which have twice destroyed the capital. 

1012. The southern part of Central America is low, as represent¬ 
ed in the profile 123, and it has been proposed to cut a canal from 
Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific Ocean, through which vessels might 
pass to the River St. Juan and the Atlantic Ocean. 

jj, _What lake in Central America ? What river flows from it ? 


220 


WEST INDIES. 


y Exercises cm the Profile. — By 
% what river can you ascend from 
§ the Caribbean Sea to L. JVica- 
ragua ? How could a water pas- 

(123) Profile of Guatemala across g^ge be made here across the 
Lake Nicaragua. peninsula? 

III. 1013. The state of the 'people., agriculhire, Tnanvfactures, and 
commerce., is very poor. The government is still unsettled, and the 
different states are frequently at war; so that no improvement is made. 

HI, Political Map of M. .America. — What seaports has Guatemala on the Car¬ 
ibbean Sea } What on the Pacific Ocean ? What towns in the interior ? 

WEST INDIES. 



(124) Sugar Plantation in the West Indies. 

I. 1014 . The most valuable productions of the West 
Indies are sugar and coffee, which are exported in large 
quantities. They are cidtivated by Africans, who are 
slaves in all these islands except the British, where they have 
been emancipated. 

I. Physical Map of N. America. — Where are the West India Islands ? 
What seas do they enclose in part ? Which are the four largest islands ? 
( They are usually called the Cheater Antilles.) What are the most valuable 
products of the West Indies ? (IT 1014.) 

II. 1015. The JVest India Islands form an arch, extending from 
Mexico to the north-eastern part of South America. They com¬ 
prise five large, and more than forty small islands. Besides these, 
there are many low, coral islands, called keys. 

II■ Physical Map of N. America. — Where are the Bahama Isles ? 
What are the small islands called, which lie S. E. of Porto Rico ? What 
large island lies on the coast of South America ? 




























GREATER ANTILLES. 


221 


hi what zone do the 
Jiave on tlieir climate ? 
zone? (T[451..) 


VVest India Islands lie ? What effect must the sea 
(See IT 479.) What wind blows constantly in this 


1016. These islands have generally a fertile soil, and produce in 
abundance the plants and fruits of the Torrid Zone. 

1017. The heat is moderated by tlie sea, the trade winds, and the 
land and sea breezes. The ivinters are warm and delightful; the 
highlands are always temperate ; and it is only in the moist low¬ 
lands that the heat is oppressive, and the climate unhealthy. 

1018. In the rainy season, the rain descends like a deluge; and 
from August to November, these islands are subject to hurricanes, 
which often destroy trees, crops, and even buildings. Many of 
them are also subject to earthquakes. 


ZX. Greater Antilles, 

INCLUDING CUBA, PORTO RICO, HAYTI, AND JAMAICA. 

ZX. 1019. The Ch'eater Antilles are all traversed hy ranges of 
mountains, which give them a variety of scenery and climate. 
The lowlands and valleys are very fertile. Some of the mountains 
are volcanic, and these islands are subject to earthquakes, which 
have sometimes destroyed entire cities. 

1020. They have regular land and sea breezes. In the intervals 
between these, the heat is often oppressive, especially on the low¬ 
lands, which are generally unhealthy for strangers. 

1021. Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain. Cuba is the 
largest and most fertile and wealthy of these islands. It yields a 
great quantity of sugar and coffee, and the best tobacco known, 
and it also contains valuable mines. Porto Rico is very fertile, but 
not so well cultivated. 

1022. Hayti, or St. Domingo, was taken from the French and 
Spaniards by their African slaves, who have established an inde¬ 
pendent republican government 

1026. They profess the Roman Catholic religion; and few are 
acquainted with the Bible. They are ignorant and indolent; and 
the island is not well cultivated. 

1024. Jamaica is a beautiful island, rising in the centre into 
mountains and table lands, where the climate is very temperate. 

1025. It belongs to the British. The emancipated slaves are im 
proving in knowledge, industry, and morality. 

II, Polit 'cal Map of N. America. —■ What islands are called the Greater 
Antilles? Which is the largest? Which is the most eastern? In Avhat 
direction, and how far from Florida, is Cuba ? What is the chief city ? 
What city on the South side ? Which way is Hayti from Cuba ? What is 
its chief town ? What other place on the IN. side ? Where is Jamaica? 
What is the chief town 


222 


WEST lNi>lES. 


XI. Cartbbee Islands. 

- 1020. The. Caribbee Islands are generally small, and appear 
like mountains rising from tlie sea. Most of them are volcanic, and 
are subject to earthquakes. An earthquake in 1843, destroyed the 
capital city of Guadaloupe in a few minutes. 

1027. These islands are very fertile; and the constant trade 
winds give them a climate almost as pleasant and uniform as that 
of the ocean around them. 

1028. The greater number of these islands belong to Great Britain. 
The rest are colonies of France, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden. 

1029. Trinidad is a large island, at the southern extremity of 
this range, which belongs to Great Britain. Its surface is almost 
level, and its soil very fertile; but its climate is hot and unhealthy. 

II. Maps of N. America. — Which are some of the northern Caribbee 
Islands 1 Which are the most southern 1 Wliere is Trinidad ? 

XI. Bahama Islands. 

1030. Tie Bahama Islands are very numerous; but the greater 
number are mere rocks or sand-banks, and few are inhabited. 

1031. The climate is fine and liealthy ; but the soil is generally 
barren, and produees only cotton and tropical fruits. Salt is the 
only valuable expoH. 

II. Maps of N. America. — Where are the Bahamas? What are the 
principal islands ? Where is Guanahani 1 


II. Bermuda Isles. 

1032. The Bermuda Isles are generally spoken of as a part 
of the West Indies, although distant from the rest They have a 
temperate climate., and produce fine fruits, and valuable cedar 
timber, used in building ships. 

II. Political Map of N. America .—Where are the Bermuda Isles? 
What American state lies in the same latitude ? 

III. CITIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 

1033. America is much less distinguished for the number and size of its 
cities than Europe and Asia. There are none which are so lai^e as the 
chief cities of Europe, and only five above the third rank in population. 

1034. In the cities of the United States, the houses are generally built 
of brick. The streets are broader and more neat than in most European 
cities, and are usually paved, and furnished with sidewalks for foot pas¬ 
sengers. 

1035. They are adorned with churches and other public buildings, which 
often have considerable beauty. Perhaps no cities in the world are more 


CITIES OF NORTH AMERICA. 223 

distinguished for the number of humane and charitable institutions, than 
those of the United States, 

1036. The towns of the Northern United States, especially of New England, 
are seldom closely built. The houses are generally of wood, separated by 
gardens and cultivated grounds 5 and the streets are usually shaded with 
trees. These circumstances give them peculiar beauty. 

1037. The towns of the Westeim. States, and of the western parts of New 
York and Pennsylvania, are laid out more regularly, and the buildings are 
generally more elegant, than in the older towns of the Atlantic States. 

1038. In the Soxtthem States, the people are so much scattered, that there 
are few towns or villages, and only a small number of towns of consider¬ 
able size. 

1039. Most of the principal cities of the United States are seaports ; and 
the largest are situated on islands or peninsulas. New York and New Or¬ 
leans are on islands; Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston, are on penin- 
sxdas ; Hartford, Albany, Trenton, Richmond, and Savannah, are capitals, 
at the head of sloop navigation on their respective rivers. 

1040. The seats of government of the states are often veiy small towns, 
chosen only on account of their central situation. 

1041. Washington was laid out, on an extensive and regular plan, as the 
seat of government for the United States. It is not yet closely built 5 and 
the clusters of houses, with extensive vacant spots, appear like a number 
of villages. The Capitol, for the meetings of Congress, and the president's 
house, are magnificent buildings. 

1042. New York is among the first commercial cities in the world. It is 
situated on a beautiful and spacious harbor, formed by the Hudson River 
and the passage from Long Island Sound, here called the East River. 
The streets rise from the water, and are laid out with considerable reg¬ 
ularity. 

1043. Philadelphia is the first city in the Union in manufactures. It is 
remarkable for the regularity and neatness of its streets, and for the beauty 
of its environs. Its inland trade is extensive, and its market is said to be 
almost unrivalled. 

1044. Baltimore is situated on a bay running up from the Patapsco River. 
It is divided by a small stream into two parts — the Town, and Fell's Point. 
The latter is the principal seat of commercial business. This city has in¬ 
creased with great rapidity. It is adorned with one of the first monuments 
erected to the memory of Washington in our country. 

1045. Boston is the principal city of New England, in commerce, popula¬ 
tion, and wealth. It is situated on an irregular peninsula, and the streets 
axe narrow and crooked. The harbor is excellent, adorned with islands, and 
surrounded by a beautiful and highly cultivated country. 

1046. New Orleans, from its situation at the mouth of the Mississippi, is 
the centre of trade for the extensive country watered by Oiis river and its 
branches. The ground on w'hich it stands is lower than tlie river, in many 
parts of the town, and extremely ^vet. The situation and climate render it 
very unhealthy in the warm season, especially to strangers. 

d '' 1 n* 


224 


NORTH AMERICA. 


lOiT. Charleston is regularly built, upon a low peninsula between Ashley 
and Cooper Rivers, which form a fine harbor at their junction. It is a place 
of considerable wealth and commerce, and is one of the largest cities in 
the states South of Maryland. 

1048. Albany is a flourishing city, finely situated for trade at the head of 
sloop navigation on the Hudson River. Near this place, the canals from 
Lake Champlain and Lake Erie unite with the Hudson. 

1049. Salem is a flourishing and wealthy place, the second m New Eng¬ 
land in commerce. It has been distinguished for the extent of its trade 
with the East Indies. 

1050. Providence is the third commercial town in New England. It is 
distinguished for its college, and the numerous manufacturing establish¬ 
ments in its neighborhood. 

1051. Richmond is the seat of trade for the interior of Virginia. It is sit¬ 
uated on a beautiful declivity, on the banks of James River. Norfolk is the 
principal seaport of Virginia. Savannah is the principal seaport of Georgia^ 
and has a flourishing commerce. 

1052. Cincinnati is the most populous city, except New Orleans, in the 
Western States, and is increasing with great rapidity in commerce and 
population. 

1053. Newark is the largest town in New Jersey, distinguished for its 
flourishing manufactures. New Haven is one of the most beautiful tovras 
in the United States, distinguished as the seat of Yale College. Hartford 
is finely situated, and is a flourishing place, both in trade and manufactures. 

1054. Natchez, the principal towm of Mississippi, is a flourishing place of 
trade. Newhern is the largest town of North Carolina, and has a valuable 
trade with the West Indies. 

1055. Knoxville and Nashville are the principal towns of Tennessee, and 
the seats of literary institutions. Lexington is a large and handsome town, 
the seat of Transylvania University. Pittsburg is at the head of navigation 
on the Ohio, and the centre of trade from the Atlantic to the Western States. 

1056. Newport is beautifully situated on a fine harbor of great size and 
depth. Burlington, Windsor, and Middlebury, the principal towns of Ver¬ 
mont, are small but flourishing places. 

1057. In the British Provinces, Quebec is the principal seaport. The 
lower town is on the banks of the river; and the upper town, strongly for¬ 
tified, stands on the top of a promontory above it. 

1058. Montreal is also an important place of trade, situated on an island 
in the St. Lawrence. Both these cities are built of stone, in the ancient 
European style. 

1059. In Spanish America, or Mexico and Guatemala, the cities are 
generally built on a regular plan, with broad paved streets, furnished with 
sidewalks. Most of them are supplied with water by aqueducts, and the 
public squares are often adorned with fountains, as in Spain. 

1060. The public buildings, especially churches, nunneries, and convents, 
are numerous and splendid. The private hmises are seldom convenient or 
elegant. They are usually low, often only one story, and seldom exceeding 


APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHY. 


225 


two stories in height, on account of the earthquakes and hurricanes to which 
these cities are subject. Lima, Quito, and Caraccas, have been almost de 
stroyed by earthquakes. 

10(31. In most of these cities, the houses are built of brick or stone. In 
the cities of the Torrid Zone, on account of the heat, the windows are usu¬ 
ally furnished with lattices, blinds, or curtains, instead of glass. 

10G2. A number of these cities are situated on ground so high, that they 
enjoy perpetual spring. Mexico, Puebla, Durango, and several others, are 
a mile and a half above the level of the sea. 

1063. Mexico is one of the most populous cities of America, and one of 
the finest in the world in its situation and appearance. 

106-1. Guatemala is an inconsiderable place, and the cities of Central 
America are inferior to those of Mexico. The old city of Guatemala was 
destroyed by an earthquake. 

III. APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHY, 

OR TRAVELS ON THE MAP. 

1065. To discover whether you understand what you have learned, and 
know how to apply it, you must endeavor to travel on the map, and give an 
account of the objects you meet w ith. To answer the questions, you must 
remember what you have learned, or look back to the account of North 
America, and of Zones, Climates, Civilization, Government, and Religion. 

Maps of N. America. — What course will you take from the eastern coast 
of the United States to Greenland 1 What countries and islands shall you 
pass, and to whom do they belong ? What new' objects shall you probably 
see on your voyage? {See IT 144.) What bay lies west of Greenland? 
What is the most northern passage from this bay towards the West, that 
has been discovered ? How many degrees westward is Icy Cape ? 

As it is probable the ice will not permit you to go farther, you can return 
and examine Hudson’s Bay. 

What straits lead info this bay ? What country lies South of these 
straits ? What can you say of the people ? (IT 725.) What forts and 
trading-houses do you find on Hudson’s Bay? What course will you take 
to reach the most western trading-house ? How do you like the climate ? 
(IT 719.) What mountains are near you? Who occupy the coast West of 
these mountains ? What articles of commerce shall you find among the 
Indians ? (IT 742.) How do the traders convey their furs ? What course 
must you take to reach Montreal by water, passing over land from the Lake 
of the Woods to Lake Superior ? What language shall you find most com¬ 
mon in E. Canada? (H 748.) 

Political Map of U. States. — What towns should you pass in going down 
to the mouth of the St. Lawrence ? 

You will find the banks of this river fertile, and lined with houses, form¬ 
ing almost a continued village. ^ 

Map N. Div. —Through what river can you pass into Lake Champlain ? 
What communication is there between this lake and the Hudson River ? 
What states lie East of the Hudson ? How can you pass by water from 
the Hudson to Lake Erie ? From L. Erie to the Ohio R. ? 


226 


NORTH AMERICA. 


How will you go from New York to the Mississippi River and to New 
Orleans through the United States, on these waters and canals ? {See 
Navigation, p. 162,) Through what rivers could the James River be 
connected with the Ohio ? 

Canals now unite Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, the Delaware River 
with the Raritan, which empties near New York, and Chesapeake Bay 
with Albemarle Sound, through the Great Dismal Swamp. 

What is the course of inland navigation from Montreal to Edenton, N. 
C., by the help of these canals ? 

Begin at Portland, Maine, and describe the course through the seats of 
government of the states lying on the Atlantic, till you reach N. Carolina; 
and mention the states and towns through which you pass, and the rivers 
and bays you cross. Give the same account from N. Carolina to Florida. 
{See Map of S. Div. of U. States.) 

What states and what seaports do you pass on the coast, in returning from 
St, Augustine by sea, as I'ar as New York ? and what islands ? What 
states, ports, and islands do you pass, in going through Long Island Sound 
to Boston '! {See 31ap of Eastern States.) To Nova Scotia ? 

If you wish to visit the western coast of America, you will be obliged to 
go round Cape Horn. 

Describe the voyage, and mention the countries you \vill pass. {See Map 
of the World and 3iap of North America.) What is the first country of 
North America you reach after passing around Cape Horn ? Describe your 
course along the coast to Alaska. What great river, with an American 
settlement on it, do you find ? 

It is usual with ships tliat visit the North-West Coast, to carry the furs 
they obtain to China, where they are very valuable. On their course, tliey 
often stop at the Sandwich Islands for refreshment. 

Describe the course of these ships to Canton. How can they go to tlic 
United States,-moving still westward, so as to complete their voyage round 
the world ? If you do not wish to take so long a voyage, at what port in 
Mexico can you land neai-est the capital / What do you find remarkable 
in Mexico? {Seep. 218.) What gulf and sea should you cross, in going 
to Trinidad ? What course will you take to go to New Orleans, and stop 
at the principal islands of the West Indies as you pass ? 

Maps of the N. and S. Div. U. States. — What is the situation of New 
Orleans ? What states and places shall you pass in going up the Missis¬ 
sippi and Ohio to Pittsburg ? What mountains must you cross in going 
from Pittsburg to Philadelphia ? What is the first and what the last ridge ? 
What is the direct course to Washington from Wheeling, on the Ohio ? 
What places shall you find in passing up the Hudson River on each side ? 
What on the Delaware ? The Supquehannah ? The Potomac ? The 
James? Map of E. States. —What towns on the Connecticut River ? 
The Thames ? The Merrimac ? The Kennebec ? The Penobscot ? 

In what direction from Washington is Philadelphia ? New York ? Bos¬ 
ton 1 Quebec ? Hudson’s Bay ? Missouri ? Cincinnati ? New Orleans ? 
{Polit. Map of N. Am.) Charleston ? Mexico ? The West Indies ? lii 
what direction is your own home from Washington ? 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


2^r 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


I. 1066. South America surpasses all other portions of 
the world in the extent of its plains and basins, the length 
of its rivers, and, if we except Asia, in the height of its 
mountains. 

1067. It is a compact body of land, with few haiys or 
peninsulas, and a small extent of sea-coast in proportioi to 
its surface. 

la Questions and Exercises. — 1066. In what respects does S. America 
surpass other portions of* the world ? 1067. What can you say of its bays, 

peninsulas, and sea-coast ? What is its comparative size ? ( See p. 83, 
IF 239.) What figure will enclose the greater part of it ? (IT 240.) Phys. 
Map of S. America. — On which continent is S. America ? In what zones ? 
How is it bounded ? What is the most southern cape of S. America ? 
The most northern 1 The most eastern and western ? What straits cross 
it at the south ? 


I. HIGHLANDS. 


1068. The Andes appear like the spine or back-hone of 
South America, and divide it into two declivities. The 
western declivity is a narrow tract between the mountains 
and the Pacific Ocean. 'The eastern declivity forms almost 
a triangle, whose eastern point extends to the Atlantic 
Ocean, embracing the greater part of South America. 

The ascents and descents between the two oceans are represented in the 
following section, from the Pacific near Quito, to the Atlantic Ocean. 

[.4 . /Viim'hrrr.'i.T/t 



(125) Profile of S. America from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. 

Exercise on the Profile. — Describe the ascents and descents, and plains, 
on this profile. What are some of the peaks on this section ? 

1069. The Andes are the longest, and among the loftiest 
chains of mountain.s on the globe. They extend 4500 


I 






228 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


miles in length, from the naked rocks of Cape Horn to the 
Isthmus of Panama, and spread from 50 to 100 miles in 
breadth. They are called by the Spaniards^ “ The Cor¬ 
dillera,” {Cor-dil-ye-rd) or, The Chain. 

1070. The Southern Andes, from Patagonia to Peru, form 
but a single range of mountains, and are generally of the 
second rank, in height. 



(126) 'Profile of the Andes of Peru. 


1071. The Middle Andes, which are also called the Cor¬ 
dillera of Peru and Quito, consist of two ranges, extending 
to the equator, enclosing elevated valleys or table lands, 
which have a fine climate and a large number of inhabit¬ 
ants. {See the profile 125, p. 227.) They contain the lof¬ 
tiest peaks of the x4ndes, and numerous volcanoes, some of 
which are the highest in the world. 

1072. The Northern Aiides, or Cordillera of New Gre¬ 
nada, in extending North from Quito, divide into three 
branches, whose separating valleys form the channels of 
the Rivers Cauca {Ca-u-ca) and Magdalena. {See profile, 
p. 238.) 

I. Questions and Exercises. —1068. How do the Andes appear? 
1069. Describe them. How far do they extend ? What are they called by 
the Spaniards ? 1070. Describe the Southern Andes. 1071. The Middle 

Andes. What peaks and volcanoes here? Name some of them. (See 
profile and map of the Andes on Polit. Map of S. America.) 1072. Describe 
the Northern Andes. 

ZI. 1073. TTie Cordillera of Choco on the coast, and that of 
Quindiu in the middle, — which are separated by the River Cauca, 
— are ranges of little elevation. They divide at the mountain 
knot of Antiochia; and terminate in the lowlands of the Magda¬ 
lena River and Panama. On these lowlands, near the coast^ we 
find the solitary but lofty group of the Sieira Santa Martha. 


II. 1073. Describe the Cordillera of Choco and Cluindiu. 
knot do they form ? 


What mountain 





HIGHLANDS. 


229 


1074. The eastern branch, or Cordillera of Merida, turns North- 
East to the coast of the Caribbean Sea, and then runs eastwaid, 
immediately along tlie coast, in the two parallel but less elevated 
ranges of Venezuela. 

1075. The Cordillera of Merida contains lofty peaks, covered 
with perpetual snow. In one of its high valleys, or table lands, is 
the city of Bogota, 8700 feet above the sea; and between tlie 
low'er ranges of Venezuela is the city of Caraccas, at an elevation 
of 2800 feet. 

1070. The high valley, between the two ranges of the Middle An¬ 
des, is divided into several table lands, by mountain knots, or trans¬ 
verse ranges, which unite the principal ranges into one chain. 

1077. These table kinds are among the most agreeable and fertile 
parts of Soutli America, and enjoy at all seasons a mild spring cli¬ 
mate, in the midst of the Torrid Zone. On this account, they 
have ahvays been tlie most populous regions of Soutli America. 

1078. The most extensive of these table lands is that which forms 
the republic of Bolivia. It contains large cities, whose streets are 
higher than the tops of tlie Pyrenees ; and rich mines of silver are 
worked at a gi*eater height than the snows of the Alps. 

1079. The mountain knots which divide the table lands of the 
Andes are mountain lands, like Switzerland; and some of them 
much larger. Some are more elevated than the perpetual snows 
of the Alps, but, as they are situated in the Torrid Zone, still have 
a temperate climate, which renders them productive and habitable. 

I, DECLIVITIES. 

1080. The western declivity of the Andes descends by 
terraces or steps, from 20 to 100 miles wide, which are 
quite populous. The narrow lowland on the coast contains 
only the seaports. 

lOSl. The eastern declivity of the Andes, if we trace it 
by the rivers, comprises the whole eastern portion of South 
America, or the vast plains, called llanos and pampas, (p. 98, 

288-289,) which form the basins of the La Plata, Am¬ 
azon, and Orinoco Rivers, and the two mountain lands of 
Brazil and Guiana. 

I. 1080. What can you say of the western declivity of the Andes ? Of 
the lowland of the coast? 1081. ^Vhat does tlie eastern declivity of the 
Andes comprise ? 

1074 Describe the Cordillera of Merida. 1075. What peaks has it.? What 
cities on its table lands.? 1076. How is the hi"h valley of the Middle Andes 

divided.^ 1077. What can you say of these table lands Are they populous? 
1078 Which is the most extensive? What does it contain? 1079. What can 
you say of the mountain knots of tlie Andes? How high are they ? What is 
their climate ? 




230 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


11 !. 1082. The most eastern part of South America is covered 
chiefly by tlie mountain land of Brazil^ which is from 1000 to 
2000 feet above the sea. It is traversed by ranges of mountains, 
of which the following are tlie principal. 

1083. On the borders of the Atlantic we find the Sierra do Mar, 
or Maritime Ridge, a range of the lowest rank. It extends from 
the La Plata, along the south-eastern coast, to Rio Janeiro, or, as 
some say, to St. Salvador. 

1084. Between the coast and the River St. Francisco is the 
Sierra Espinhago (Espinasso), the loftiest in Brazil. West of the St 
Francisco is the Sierra dos Vertentes [Se-erra dose ver-ten-tase), or 
Ridge of the Water-shed, which divides the branches of tlie St 
Francisco from those of tlie Amazon. 

10S5. A branch of this chain extends North-West of the sources 
of the La Plata, and spreads into the broad, ban-en plains, called 
the Campos Parexis. From the borders of these plains, the prin¬ 
cipal rivers of tliis region appear to rise. 

1086. The mountain land of Ckiictna, or the group of Parima, 
North of the Amazon, consists of parallel mountain ranges, sepa¬ 
rated by longitudinal valleys. 

1087. It g^ives Hse to the River Orinoco, which finally encircles 
the greater part of it The highest peaJ(s are only of tlie third rank 
of mountains. 

Ex. Phys. Map of S. America. — Highlands. — What mountains 
border the western coast of S. America ? How many ranges in the soutli- 
ernpart? (11 1070.) What is its course ? How many ranges in the mid¬ 
dle? How are the middle ranges connected? (See H 1079.) What lies 
between them ? (U 1076.) How many ranges in the northern portion of 
the Andes ? What rivers divide them ? Where does the western range, 
or Cordillera of Choco, terminate ? The middle range, or Cordillera of 
Quindiu ? What is the course of the eastern range ? What mountain 
group N. of these on the coast? (IF 1073.) 

Divisions. — How do the Andes divide S. America? What is the form 
of the western declivity ? Of the eastern ? What mountain and table 
land do you find in the eastern part of S. America ? What is the principal 
chain on the coast? What branch has it towards the N. ? (1[ 1083.) 

What range W. of the Sierra Espinhaco, running N. and N-E. ? What 
mountain land N. of the Amazon ? What are its principal mountains 
called ? 

I. LOWLANDS. 

1088. The lowlands of South America lie chief y on the 
eastern declivity of the Andes, and form almost one con¬ 
nected plain, embracing those of Patagonia, La Plata, the 


II. 1089. Where is the mountain land of Brazil? By what is it traversed? 
1083. Where is the Sierra do Mar? 1084. The Sierra Espinhaco ? The Sierra 
dos Vertentes ? 1085. What can you say of the north-western branch of this 

chain ? What rivers rise on the borders of the Campos Pare.xis ? 1086. Describe 
the mountain land of Guiana, 1087. What stream rises in it? What is tho 
height of its peaks? 



PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 231 

Amazon, and the Orinoco, and lying between the Andes 
and the eastern highlands. 

1089. The plains of Patagonia are little known, but 
appear to be deserts, either from cold, or from the barren¬ 
ness of the soil. The pampas of La Plata, and the llanos 
of Orinoco, are immense savannas, already described. 

289-90.) 

1090. The plains of the Amazon River resemble the 
llanos in some parts; but a large part of them is called by 
the natives the Basques, or Selvas, {Forests,) because they 
are covered with forests so thick that they are scarcely pass¬ 
able except on the streams. 

Za and Ex. Phys. Map of S. AmeHca. —1088. What can you say of 
the lowlands of S. America ? 1089. Of the plains of Patagonia ? In what 

part of S. America are these plains ? Describe the pampas and llanos. 
Between wliat mountains on the W., and mountain land on the E., are the 
pampas of La Plata? Where are the plains of the iVmazon ? 1090. De¬ 

scribe tliese plains. In what part of S. America are the llanos of Ven¬ 
ezuela ? What stream passes through them ? 

Zla Rivers. — What three great rivers and basins do you find E. of the 
Andes / Which appears to be the largest river of S. America ? Where 
does it rise ? What are its principal branches on the North ? On the 
South ? Where is the La Plata, the second river of S. America ? What 
great branches form it ? Where does its chief branch, or main stream, the 
Parana, rise ? Wliat other branches has it, and where ? What river W. 
of it empties into a lake ? What are the chief rivers South of it ? What 
are the principal rivers on the eastern coast of Brazil ? 

Where is the third river of S. America, the Orinoco ? Describe its 
course. What island lies at the mouth ? Has it any communication with 
the Amazon ? What rivers in the eastern part of Brazil ? What two rivers 
in Guiana are most known ? Where is the River Magdalena? [See the 
Map of the Andes on Polit. Map S. America.) Describe its course, and 
chief branch. What reason can you see on the map, why there are no 
large rivers on the western coast ? What lakes in the southern part of 
Brazil ? 


I. PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

1091. The great physical divisions of South America are 
the western declivity and table lands of the Andes; — and the 
eastern declivity, composed of the basins of the Orinoco, the 
Amazon, and the La Plata, and the plains of Patagonia. 
Each portion is divided into a number of states. 

Z. Qii. and Ex. —1091. What are the great physical divisions of S. 
America ? Polit. Map of S. America. — What states lie on the western 
declivity ? Which of these extend E. of the Andes ? ^Vhat countries lie 
in the basin of the La Plata River ? What in that of the Amazon ’ Of the 


232 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


Orinoco ? What countries lie N. of the Equator ? What between the 
Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn ? What S. of this tropic ? 

I, EXERCISES ON SITUATION. 

Study the Physical Map of S. America until you can point out all it con¬ 
tains on the Political Map, and then answer the following questions. 

Oceans. — Point out on the Political Map of S. America the Atlantic 
Ocean. The Pacific. On which side of S. America is each ? 

Seas, Gulfs, Bays, and Straits. — Point out the Caribbean Sea. INear 
what country, and in what direction from it ? In the same way, point out 
and tell the situation of the G. of Darien; the. B. of All Saints 5 B. of St. 
Mathias; B. of St. George ; G. of Guaitecas; G. of Guayaquil; G. of 
Panama. Between what portions of land is the Strait of Magellan ? 

Capes. — Where is C. Gallinas ? C. Orange? C. North? C. St. 
Roque? C. Frio? C. Santa Maria? C. Antonio? C. Horn? C. and 
Peninsula of Three Mounts ? C. Parina ? C. St. Francisco ? 

Islands. — Point out and tell near what part of S. America, and in what 
direction from it, is Trinidad in 10° N. lat. Where is Trinidad in 21° S. 
lat. ? Johannes I.? The Falkland Islands? Terra del Fuego ? Staten 
Land? Desolation 1.? Wellington I.? Chiloe Is.? I. of Juan Fer¬ 
nandez? I. St. Felix? Gallipagos Is.? Cura 9 oa, Buen Ayre, and Mar¬ 
garita ? {See Polit. Map S. A.) 

Mountains. —Point ont and tell where are the Andes 5 Mts. of Parima; 
the Sierra do Mar 5 Sierra Espinha 90 ; Sierra dos Vertentes. Where is 
Mt. Chimborazo ? Point out the situation and course of the Cordilleras of 
New Grenada, Choco, Quindiu, and Merida. {See marginal map on Polit. 
Map of S. America.) 

Rivers. — Point out and tell in what country is the Amazon River 5 the 
La Plata; the Orinoco; the Cassiquiari. Where is the Magdalena ? What 
is the name of its branch ? On which side of the Amazon are its branches, 
Ucayale, Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantins ? On which side are the 
Yapura and Negro ? Where are the Essequibo and Surinam Rivers ? The 
Paranaiba, St. Francisco and Doce ? Where is the Uraguay ? The Col¬ 
orado ? Parana ? Paraguay ? Pilcomayo and Vermejo ? Salado ? 

Lakes. — Point out and describe the situation of L. Maracaybo; L. 
Titicaca; L. Palos ; L. Mirim. 

SI. NAVIGATION. 

1092. (a) We have already seen that the coast of Soidh Arrmica 
has fewer bays and harbors, and less advantage for foreign com¬ 
merce, than any other portions of the continents, except Africa, 
(p. 83, II 241.) 

1092. (6) The means o f inland navigation surpass those of most 
other parts of the world; but, for want of industry and enterprise in 
the inhabitants, it is now confined almost entirely to natural streams. 

1092. (a) What has been said of the coast of S. America.? 1092. (ft) What 
means of inland navigation has it.? 




CLIMATE AND PllODUCTIONS. 


233 


1093. The rivers of the ivestem declivity descend too rapidly to 
admit of any important navigation. But the River St. Juan, which 
falls into the Pacific Ocean from the lowlands North of the Andes, 
has been connected by a small boat canal with the River Atrato, 
which falls into the Gulf of Darien, and thus opens a boat naviga¬ 
tion between the oceans. 

1094. The Rivers Magdalena and Cauca are navigable for flat- 
bottomed boats, to the interior of New Grenada; and steamers now 
navigate the Magdalena for some distance. 

1095. The basin of the Onnoco has great advantages for inland 
navigation by means of the river and its branches. Through the 
Meta branch, boats can pass even to the foot of the Andes. 

109G. But only seven of the fifty mouths of the Orinoco are nav¬ 
igable ; it is often difficult to find the way through its channels; 
and its rapid cui*rents and counter-currents also obstruct navigation. 

1097. The Amazon admits of ship navigation for 2000 miles. 
The boat navigation extends 3000 miles to the Pongo, or rapids of 
Jaen. But the uninhabited or savage state of the country has pre¬ 
vented it from being navigated. 

1098. The large branches of the Amazon extend navigation to 
every part of its basin. By the Cassiquiari River, it is connected 
with the branches of the Orinoco. 

1099. The La Plata, or Paraguay, opens to tlie ocean wiUi an 
estuary, or broad mouth, 150 miles wide, and is said to be naviga¬ 
ble 1000 miles to Assumption, and for boats 800 miles farther. Its 
branches extend the navigation through a large tract of countiy, and 
to the foot of the Andes. 

1100. Of the smaller rivers of Brazil, the St. Francisco is naviga¬ 
ble for some distance; and others serve to convey the produce of the 
mines to the coast. 


XZ. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. 

1101. The gi'taler part of South America lies in the Torrid Zone. 
The plains have the climate and productions of the Equatorial Region, 
while they furnish many useful plants not found in other countries, 
and of great value in commerce. 

1102. South America is surrounded by oceans, and ivatered by 
countless streams. 7%is renders its climate moist, and its surface is 
generally covered with rich vegetation, and forests so thick that it is 
difficult to pass through them. 

1103. In this way, it is generally preseired from the burning heats 

TT 1093. What can you say of the rivers of the western declivityOf the R. 
Stijuan and Atrato ? 1094. Of the R. Magdalena and Cauca ? 1095. Of the basin 

of the Orinoco 1096. Of its mouths 1097. Of ship navigation on the Amazon 

Of boat navigation ^ 1098. Of the branches of the Amazon i Of the R. Cassi- 

nuiari? 1099? What navigation does the R. La Plata afford.’ 1100. The St. 
Francisco.’ 1101. In what zone does S. America lie .’ What are the climate and 
productions of the plains ? Has it any plants not found elsewhere.’ 1102, How 

IS S. America surrounded and watered? How is its surface generally covered 
1103 ", What effect does this produce on the climate of the plains ’ 




234 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


of Africa, even in the plains. The extensive table lands enjoy a cli¬ 
mate resembling a perpetual spring. 

1104. The southern parts extend through the Warm and Tem¬ 
perate to the Cold Regioris, and have the climate and productions 
of each. 

1105. The winds which cross tlie continent deposit or drop their 
moisture in rain on the Andes. Hence, in the latitude of the eastern 
or trade toinds, from the equator to 30° South latitude, the easteim 
declivity of the Andes has abundant rains and rich vegetation; 
while the western declivity has scarcely any rain, and is barren, and 
often desert, as in W estern Peru. 

1106. In the regions South of the trade uhmls^ the westerly winds 
bring rain to the western declivity, as in Chili; while the eastern 
suffers with drought, as in La Plata. 

1107. The animals of Soidh America are generally inferior in 
size and ferocity to those of the eastern continent; but the birds 
are not surpassed in the variety and beauty of their plumage. 

1108. The mountains furnish the llama and vicuna, which are 
valuable beasts of burden; and the llanos and pampas are traversed 
by vast herds of unld cattle, whose hides and horns are important 
articles of export 

1109. The mountains of South America abound in mines of gold 
and silver, which are the richest in the world; and the streams of 
Brazil bring down more diamonds and precious stones in their sands, 
than those of most other countries. 

TTm Exercises on the Chart of Climates. — What countries of S. Amer¬ 
ica lie in the Equatorial Region ? What must be their principal plants ? 
What valuable plants belong especially to S. America ? What countries 
are there in the Hot Regions, and what are their productions ? What 
countries and climate South of these ? What must be the climate of the 
southern part ? Why should the climates of S. America be more temperate 
than those of the other grand divisions of the world ? (See U 1102.) 

m. INHABITANTS. 

1110. South America was settled by colonies of Spanish and Portuguese, 
which are now independent states. Guiana is divided between Dutch, 
English, and French colonists; and they still govern these civilized coun¬ 
tries. 

1111 . The interior is chiefly occupied by Indiatis, in a savage state, almost 

unknown to Europeans. , 

1112. IVie Araiccanians of Chili, and some other tribes of Indians in 

II. How are the table lands ? 1104. What can you say of the southern parts ? 

1105. What of the winds In the latitude of the trade winds, what are the 
rains and vegetation on the eastern side of the AndesWhat on the western.^ 

1106. What is the state of the declivities, south of the latitude of the trade winds ? 

1107. What can you say of the animals of S. America? How are the birds? 

1108. What beasts of burden are there? What are found in the plains? 

1109. What mines are there in S. America? W’^hat precious stones are found? 

1110. How was S. America settled? What have the colonies become? What 
can you say of Guiana ? 1111. How is the interior inhabited ? 1119, What is the 
character of the Araucanians ? 



inhabitants. 


235 


South America, are much more civilized than those of North America, and 
are equally brave and warlike. These tribes, and some who were taught 
the Roman Catholic religion and the arts of civilization by the Jesuits, still 
remain independent. 

1113. ITie greater part of the po'pidation of South America consists of 
Indians who have long been subject to the whites, and are almost like 
slaves in their character. 

1114. The middle classes of society are chiefly Mestizoes, or children of 
the Spaniards who have intermarried with Indians. 

1115. The Mestizoes are naturally intelligent and sprightly, and some of 
them have become very learned men. Others are herdsmen, resembling 
savages in their chaiacter and habits. 

1116. The higher classes consist of European and Amencan Spaniards and 
Portuguese, who are generally educated and wealthy, but indolent in their 
habits, and dissolute in their morals. 

1117. The government of Spain formerly discouraged instruction, and the 
circulation of books, among the people of South America. 

1118. Since the Spanish colonies have become independent republics, 
new institutions have been founded, and information has been more exten¬ 
sively spread by books and newspapers. 

1119. But the governments are generally unsettled, wars are frequent, 
the people are not allowed to read the Bible, and these states are making 
little progress in civilization. 

1120. South America is thinly inhabited, the general ignorance and in¬ 
dolence of the people prevent improvement, and there are few roads, 
bridges, and canals. 

1121. Hence industry is discouraged in South America, by the difficulty 
of carrying produce to a market, as well as by the passion for mining, 
(which generally ruins those who undertake it,) and the unsettled state of 
most of these countries. 

1122. Agriculture and manufactures are neglected, and some fertile, popu¬ 
lous regions depend on other countries for their clothing and tools, as well 
as for their bread. 

1123. The valuable products of South America will always give it im¬ 
portant commerce ; but it is carried on chiefly by foreign ships. 

Exercises on the Moral and Political Chart. — What is the religion of the 
countries of S. America ? What is their state of civilization I What is the 
government of Brazil ? What is that of the other states I 


Ila Wliat is the state of the Indians instructed by the Jesuits I 1113. Who form 
the greater part of the population of South America.^ 1114. What can you say 
of the middle classes? 1115. What is their character? What can you say of 
those who have become herdsmen? 1116. Who form the higher classes? 
1117. Did the government of Spain encourage learning in South America? 
ink What alteration has taken place in the state of knowledge ? 1119. What 
is the present state of the governments? 1120. Is S. America thinly inhabited? 
What can you say of roads and canals? 1121. How is industry discouraged in 
S. America ? 1122. What is the state of agriculture and manufactures ? 1123. Of 
commerce ? 




236 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

What countries of S. America lie N. of the equator ? In what zone ? 

GUIANA. 



Skinning the Boa Serpent. Indian lying in a Hammock. 

■ (127) Indians of Guiana, and the Boa Serpent. 

I, 1124. Guiana is inhabited in the interior by Indians, 
and the great boa serpent is found in its forests. 

I. Polit. Map of S. America. — Where is Guiana ? How is it bounded ? 
How is it divided ? W^hat are the chief towzis of British Guiana 1 Of 
Dutch Guiana? Of French Guiana? What remarkable animal is found 
here? (TF 1124.) 

II. 1125. Guiana is generally low and flat, traversed by canals 
like Holland, and has a very fertile soil. The intenor rises into 
mountains, covered witli impenetrable forests. 

III. 1126. The climate is hot and unhealthy ; but the productions 
are valuable. The greater part of the population consists of negroes. 
They are slaves, except in British Guiana, where they have been set 
free. 

COLOMBIA. 

The republic of Colombia formerly occupied the northern 
part of South America, but is now divided into the repub¬ 
lics of Venezuela, New Grenada, and Ecuador. 














VENEZUELA. 


237 


VENEZUELA. 



l. 1127. Venezuela is crossed by the north-eastern branch 
of the Andes ; and, like other countries near this chain, it 
is subject to violent earthquakes. In 1812, an earthquake 
destroyed the greater part of Carticcas, with 10,000 of its 
inhabitants, in a few minutes. 

X. Pol. M. A. — On what sea is Venezuela? How is it bounded? 
What is its capital ? How is it situated ? (See If 1075.) To what danger 
is it subject ? (111127.^ 

SJ. 1128. Venezuela ba^ a high const^ and the lowlands on the 
sea are rocky and barren, with a scorching climate. The moun¬ 
tainous tracts have the productions and climate of temperate coun¬ 
tries. The interior spreads into vast fertile plains, and “ seas of 
grass.” (H 290.) 

SX. re tliere any rivers emptying into the Caribbean Sea ? Why 
not? {See map and TT 1074, p. 229.) What river passes through Ven¬ 
ezuela ? What mountains in the southern part ? 

m. H 29. The products of Venezuela are generally those of the 
Efinatorial Region, and cacao is especially valuable. Agriculture is in 
a poor state, and arts and 'manufactures are neglected. 

1130. The commerce Venezuela is important; the government \s 
establ'shed and just; and this country appears to be advancing faster 
in civilization than others in Soutli America. 

XXTi Wliat seaports lias Venezuela.^ What towns on the River Orinoco * 
from its source to the point where it turns eastward.^ What below or E. of this 
point ^ What other places in the interior ? What islands are there off the coast ? 

I f La re any passage for boats from Venezuela to the Amazon River.^ (1098 ) 

* During the first course, the student ought to learn to distinguish every river, 
mountain, &c., on the political map ; hut if he cannot, he may look at the 
piiysical map for the questions marked II, 








238 


SOUTH amehica. 


NEW GRENADA. 


I. 1131. New Grenada 
is traversed by the three 
ranges of the Northern 
Andes, which give it a 
mountainous surface, as 
will be seen in this profile 
of the country from the Pa¬ 
cific Ocean to the llanos of 
the Orinoco River. 



(129) Profile of New Grenada. 


I. Pol. M, S. A. — How is New Grenada bounded ? What is the cap¬ 
ital ? What is its surface '/ {See IT 1131, and the profile.) 

ZI. 1132. A large part of it consists of elevated valleys and 
table lands, which g’ve it a rugged surface. It is level only in the 
plains of the Orinoco, and at the mouths of the rivers. 

1].‘13. The soil and climate of New Grenada vary with the situa¬ 
tion and height T/ie low regions have a rich soil, but a hot, un¬ 
healthy climate. The high counti'y has nearly the same spring 
temperature in summer and winter; but it is also productive. 

1134. The loiolands are rich in equatorial productions ; while the 
highlands have the plants and fruits of temperate climates. The 
western declivity of the Andes has very rich mines of gold and 
silver. 


II. Note, p.‘251. What mountains pass througlf New Grenada 1 How 
many ranges do they form ? What rivers separate the ranges ? 

m. 1135. Agriculture is badly managed, and muimfacturcs are in 
a lov/ state. Commerce is carried on from its ports by foreign nations; 
and its exports are valuable. 

1136. A canal is proposed from the River Chagres to the Pacific 
Ocean, by which ships may cross the Isthmus of Panama. 

III, On what mountains is the capital of New Gren.ada? What seaports 
has it on the Caribbean Sea ? What on the Pacific Ocean I What are the ports 
on each side of tlie Isthmus of Panama or Darien i W’hat city among the Andes ? • 
What otlier places do you find on the map ? 


MIDDLE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


I. Pol. M. S. A. — What countries of South America lie between the 
Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn ? In what zone are they ? 

ECUADOR. 

I. 1137. The inhabited portion of Ecuador lies chiefly 
on the declivities, and in the lofty valleys and table lands of 








ECUADOR. 


239 



the Andes. The most remarhahle table land is that of 
Q,uito, with its mountains and volcanoes. (<S’ec engraving.'^ 

Q. is Quito ; F. Pichin- 
cha 5 C. Cayambe j Cot. 

Cotopaxi 5 and Ch. Chim¬ 
borazo. 

1138. It appears to 
lie upon a region of in¬ 
ternal lire, and is sub¬ 
ject to frequent earth¬ 
quakes. 

Z. Pol. JI. S. A. — How 
is Ecuador bounded ? What 
is its capital ? How is it 
situated ! (See IT 1137, and 
profile iSia.) What volcano' 
is near it ? ( See engraving.) 

What peaks S. of it ? 

3CI. 1139. The only 
level portion of Kciiador 
is East of the Andes; 
but ihi.'i is inhabited 
chiefly by Indians in a 
savage state. 

1140. Ecuador con¬ 
tains a great deal of fer¬ 
tile land. Its plains fur¬ 
nish the p’anis of the 
Equatorial Region, and (130) Table Land of Quito. 

its highlands tliose of 

Temperate countries. It produces some valuable plants which are 
found in few other countries., such as the cinchona, or the tree which 
yields the Peruvian bark. 

II. ^Vl^at peiks of the .Andes do you find in Ecuador ? (See Map of 
Andes, and fig. MO.) Wliat great river receives branches from Ecuador? 

SS'K. IMI- The people, arL'i, manufactures, and commerce, texe in 
the same low state as those of New Grenada. 

What seaports has Ecuador.^ What places among the mountains? 
What islands are tfune olTthe coast claimed by Ecuador.^ 











240 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


PERU. 



(131) Lima and the Andes. 


I. 114'2. Jjrtrf of Pent inhd.hitvd ht/ riri/izrd jd ojjfc 
lies on the declivity and tlie table binds <1 ihe Andes, which 
extend along the coast in a lofty chain, in the rear ol Lima. 

I. Pol. M. S. A. — How is Feni bounded ! What is its r.ipit.d ? Is 
Lima on the sea? W^hat is its seaport 1 How is it situated ! (il 11 1—) 

I3C. 1343. The ^rface of Peru is irregular, except in the plains 
East of the Andes, which are occn])ied by savages. 

1144. The soil of tlie valleys of the streams, and of the table 
lands, is fertile. The lowlands and western declivity of the moun¬ 
tains are generally bare of vegetation, as rain seldom falls here ; 
but the eastern declivity is well watered, and covered with thick 
forests. [See H 110.5.) In tlie South it has the Desert of Atacama, 
which is so dry as to be covered witli salt. 

1145. The climate is, therefore, dry as well as hot; but with good 
agriculture, this country Avould produce abundantly the plants of 
the Equatorial and Temperate Regions. [See 11 1103.) 

1146. Peru has mines of gold, silver, and copper, and important 
commerce in these articles; but knowledge, arts, and manufactures, 
are in a Ioav state. 

Ill Note, p. 237.-—.What chain of mountains behind Lima? Does 
Peru extend East of the Andes ? To what river do branches flow from 
the eastern part ? Do the Andes of Peru form one, or two ranges ? (T1 1071.) 
What is there between these ranges ? (IT 1076.) Wiiere are the greater 
number of its inhabitants ? (H 1077.) What desert is there on the coast? 

III. What seaports on the coast of Peru ? What places among the An ies ? 













IJOLIVIA. 


241 


BOLIVIA. 



(132) Travellin^^ over the Ayides. 


_ I. 1147. Bolivia was fonnerly cailad Upper Peru, and 
lies almost entirely on the table land between the ranges of 
the Andes. The people arc obliged to travel and^carry 
their goods over the jnountains oji mules, or llamas. 

Xa Pol. M. S. A. —.flow is Bolivii boun-.ied / Where does it lie? 
What and where is its ca>)it il / Wiiat is the mode of travelliixT in Bo¬ 
livia ? (TT 11 d7.) 

11. 1148. T/ie sur¬ 
face of Bolivia is rugged 
and mountainous. The 
soil is in some parts fer¬ 
tile, and in others desert. 

Its elevation gives it a 
temperate, and, in some 
parts, a cold climate. 

(1l 48().) The adjoining io 
prolile sho>vs the situa¬ 
tion of the table land of 5 
Bolivia, between two 
ranges of mountains. . 

XX. What lake does Bo¬ 
livia contain ? What rivers 
have branches rising in it ? How higli above the sea is the table land of Bo¬ 
livia? {See profile, and the. scul,-’. of feel at the side, and also U 1073.) 
What cities on this table land ? W^hat great river rises in it ? What 
smaller streams ? 



(133) Profile of Bolivia. 



















242 


SOUTH AMEJUCA. 


m. 1149. The most valuable production of Bolivia is the silver 
of its mines, which are amon^ the richest in the world. These give 
it an important commerce, and it is also the centre of trade between 
La Plata and Peru. 


BRAZIL. 



(134) Forest in Brazil. 


l. 1150. A large portion of J^razil lies in the basin of 
the Amazon, and consists of vast plains. A part of these 
are llanos ; and the remainder are selvas, or forests abound¬ 
ing in wild animals. 

X. Pol. M. (S’, yt. — How is Brazil bounded '! What is its capital ? For 
what is it remarkable '? (H 1150.) 

IS. 1151. The forests are so fdled with shrubs, and interlaced 
with strong vines running from tree to tree, that it is often difficult 
to pass through them ; and they are known to few except the Indians. 

XI» What great river runs througli Brazil ? Has it many other streams 7 
Iji what parts is it level '! In what parts does it appear to be mount:)iiious 7 

1152. The souih-casteni pari of Brazil is a mountain land. It 
contarm valuable mines of silver and gold, and streams whose sands 
are rich in diamonds and precious stones. 

1153. The soil of the valleys and loAvlands of Brazil is very fer¬ 
tile. The climate is hot, but moist, and no country in the world is 
better fitted for all the valuable productions of the Equatorial Re¬ 
gion. 

m. 1154. The people are ignorant, indolent, and more fond of 
mining than of regular industry. Agriculture is so neglected, that 
the crops often perish after they are ripened. Manufactures are al- 













chili. 2l?j 

most unknown ; and the important commerce of Brazil is left to 
foreigners. 

115.5. The fields^ roads, and modes of living of the people, are in 
ferior to those of most civilized nations. 

III. II.-xs Brazil many towns in the interior.^ What are they.? Are th' 
any on the^inazon.? What seaports lie south of Rio Janeiro.? What hetwf.. 
Rio Janeiro and Cape St. Roque .? Wliat ports between Cape St. Roque and t 
Amazon .? What rivers are tliere in the mountain land at the South-East.? Wl 
towns upon them.? What is the government of Brazil? (See Political Chm 
What is the religion and state of civilization .? 


SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

X. Pol. M. S. A. — What countries of Soutli America lie South of t 
Tropic of Capricorn ? Tn what zone are they ? 


CHILI. 



(135) Bridges in Chili. 


I, 1156. The Andes abound in quelradas^ or deep 
chasms, which are crossed by bridges of ropes, as in the 
engraving of some in Chili. 

I, Pol. M. S. A. — How is Chili bounded? What is its capital, and 
where ? For what is it remarkable ? (IT 1156.) 

II. 1157. Chili is a narrow strip of land, lying entirely on the 
western declivity of the Andes. Only a few passes over the moun¬ 
tains are known ; and it is shut in on the JVbrth by the Desert of 
Atacama. 

1158. It abounds in volcanoes, and is subject to frequent earth- 





















244 


SOUTH AMERICA 


quakes ; one of which, in 1822, raised the coast, for 100 miles, sev¬ 
eral feet above its former level. 

1159. IVie soil is fertile, and watered by numerous short streams 
and abundant rains. (H 1100.) 7Vi.e climate is pleasant and healtliy. 

1100. Chili produces the fruits of the Warm and Temperate Re¬ 
gions in abundance ; and in some parts, there are whole'forests of 
fruit-trees. 

Ill How many ranges of the Andes in Chili ? (H 1070.) Does the 
country extend E. of the Andes ? Has it any large rivers ? W hy not ? 

III. 1161. Chili also contains valuable viines^ and has important 
commerce. Tlie people are more industrious than those of warmer 
countries; but agriculture and manufactures are still in a low state. 

Ilia W'Jiat seaports are thereon the coast of Chili What islands near it ? 
What towns in the interior ? What country of independent Indians South of it? 

LA PLATA. 



(136) Herdsmen of La Plata. 

I« 1162. The southern part of spreads out in 

the vast plains called the pampas, where immense herds of 
wild cattle and horses feed, and are caught with a noose. 
The guachos, or herdsmen, live a wandering life, and are 
almost savages in their character. 

I. Pol. M. S. A. — How is La Plata bounded ? What great river passes 
through it? What is the capital, and where? What are the pampas? 
{See IT 1089.) 

II. 1163. TVie pampas extend to Patagonia and the Andes, and 
contain many steppe-rivers which terminate in lakes. They are 




















PxVTAGONIA. 


URAGUAY. -PARAGUAY. - 


245 


/ 

oaon salt, from the dryness of the soil. • The northern parts of La 
Plata are hilly and mountainous, but are not well known. 

1164. T/i£ soil varies with the situation. The valleys of the 
streams are fertile and capable of cultivation ; but some tracts are 
almost deserts. 

11(15. La Plata extends from the Equatorial to the Warm and 
Temperate Regions, and has the climate and productions of these 
regions in different parts. The plains are excessively hot in sum¬ 
mer. The winters are mild even in tlie coldest parts. 

!£XZ. 1166. La Plata was once, in some respects, more advanced in 
civilization than other parts of South America; but constant civil 
wars liave stopped all progress, and almost destroyed its valuable 
commerce. 

1167. The chief exports are obtained from the wild cattle and horses 
of the pampas, and consist of hides, horns, and tallow. 

I2!la What rivers are there in tlie northern part of La Plata? What towns 
are there on the La Plata River? What in the interior, and where? Has any 
river a wider mouth than the La Plata ? {See profile, p. 117.) 


URAGUAY, OR MONTE VIDEO. - 

IIGS. Monte Video, or Uraguay, was formerly a prov¬ 
ince of La Plata, but is now declared independent. It has 
a fertile soil, a temperate climate, and a favorable situation 
for commerce. 

I. Pol. M. 8. A. — How is Monte Video bounded? What towns has 
it ? What can you say of its soil, climate, and situation ? (IT 1168.) 

PARAGUAY. 

I. 1169. Paraguay was a part of the former Spanish 
province of La Plata, but has long formed a separate state, 
composed of Indians, governed by Spaniards. 

I. Pol. M. 8. A. — Where is Paraguay? How is it bounded? What 
is its capital ? What can you say of it ? (IT 1169.) 

JJ,. 1170. They allow no strangers to visit it, and we only know 
that it is a level, fertile country. It is remarkable for the matte, or 
Paraguay tea, which forms an important article of commerce with 
the suiTOunding countries. 


PATAGONIA. 

I. 1171. Patagonia is a country thinly inhabited by 
savages, some of whom are remarkably tall. They are bold 
and ferocious, and accustomed to use horses. This country 
is little known, and appears to be cold and barren. 

I, Pol. M. 8. A _How is Patagonia bounded? What islands lie 

South of it ? 


246 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


m 

ISLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

I. 1172. Terra del Fuego is a cold, dreary group of 
islands, but is inhabited by Indians in the savage state. 

1173. The Falkland Islands have a temperate climate, 
and fine pasture for the cattle of the British colonists. 

1174. The Gallipago Islands, on the north-western 
coast of South America, are uninhabited, and are chiefly 
remarkable for the number of turtles found there. 

They contain a Sailor’s Post-OfRce,” — a chink in the rock, where 
sailors leave their letters for other ships to convey home. 

1175. Juan Fernandez was the island where Selkirk 
was shipwrecked, who is called, in story, Robinson Crusoe. 

I. PoL M. S. A. —Where is Terra del Fuego ? In what direction are 
the Falkland Islands from S. America ? To what coimtry of S. America 
nre the Gallipago Islands nearest ? 

HI. CITIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

1176. In Spanish South America, the cities are generally built on a 
regular plan, with broad paved streets, furnished with sidewalks like those 
in the United States. Most of them are supplied with water by aqueducts, 
and the public squares are often adorned with fountains. 

1177. The public buildings, especially churches, nunneries, and convents, 
are numerous and splendid. The private houses are seldom convenient or 
elegant. They are u.sually low, often only one story, and seldom exceed¬ 
ing two stories in height, on account of the earthquakes and hurricanes to 
which these cities are subject. Lima, Quito, and Caraccas have been almost 
destroyed by earthquakes. 

1178. In Lima, the houses are built of wood j in Popayan and Quito, of 
unburnt brick, and in most of the other cities, of brick or stone. In the 
cities of the hot countries, on account of the heat, the toindows are usually 
furnished with lattices, blinds, or curtains, instead of glass. 

1179. K number of these cities are sittmted on ground so high that they 
enjoy perpetual spring. Santa Fe de Bogota, Quito, and Popayan are 
nearly two miles above the level of the sea 5 and Caraccas, more than half 
a mile. 

1180. Caraccas is an important commercial city, on an elevated plain 
near the coast. It is separated from its seaport. La Chiayra, by mountains. 

1181. Bogota is a large, well-built city, situated on a lofty plain, and 
surrounded by precipitous mountains. The Falls of Tequendama, in the 
River Funza, are not far from it. [See p; 114, IT 395.) 

1182. Quito is only a few miles south of the equator. It is built at the 
foot of the Volcano Pichincha, on a declivity so steep that carriages cannot 
be used in many of the streets. It is traversed in some parts by deep 
chasms or crevices, over which the houses are built on arches. 


CITIES OF SOUTH AMERICi. 


247 


1183. Lima is one of the most wealthy and commercial cities of South 
America. It is distinguished for tlae magnificence of its public buildings 
and the rich ornaments of its churches. 

1184. Santiago is finely situated in a valley near the Andes. From this 
city, and also from Lima, an extensive commerce is carried on v/ith La 
Plata, by means of mules travelling over the Andes. 

1185. Buenos Ayres is the chief city and centre of trade of the southern 
part of South America. The La Plata is here 30 miles wide 5 but the har¬ 
bor is not safe, on account of the frequent violent storms. 

1186. Portuguese America, or Brazil, is extremely deficient in 
cities and towns. A few only are found on the coast, at considerable dis¬ 
tances, and without any roads from one to another. The only towns in the 
interior are those established for mining. The cities generally resemble 
those of Spanish America, but are not so pleasant nor so well built. 

1187. Rio Janeiro has one of the finest harbors in the world. In popu¬ 
lation and importance, it is probably the first city in South America; but in 
the comforts and improvements of civilization, it is inferior to many. 

1188. St. Salvador, or Bahia, is next to Rio Janeiro in commerce and 
population. It is situated on a point of land, and, like Quebec, is divided 
into an upper and lower town. 

1189. Jlic toions q/" Guiana are small, generally built of wood, in a neat 
and convenient manner. Paramaribo is regularly laid out, and its streets 
are sliaded with orange, lemon, and tamarind trees, which in this climate 
are covered with perpetual verdure. 

ISZ, TRAVELS ON THE MAP OF S. AMERICA. 

1190. You must now endeavor to travel on the map of South America, as 
you did in North America, {see p. 225, IT 1065,) and remember what you 
have reiul, without the help of references. 

What is the most direct course from the eastern coast of the United 
States to La Guayra, the port of Caraccas 1 What islands do you pass ? 
^Vhat ports and river shall you pass in going to Guiana ? To whom does 
this colony belong ? What places, islands, and capes do you pass, in going 
from Gui.uia to Pernambuco 1 What do you pass in going from this place 
to Rio Janeiro ? What do you find remarkable in Brazil 1 

What towns will you pass in descending the River Paraguay from its 
sources to Buenos Ayres ? What will you find remarkable ? 

What course will you take by sea from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, the 
chief port of Chili ? What country and islands do you pass 1 What can 
you say of them ? What places on the coast of Chili 1 Describe the sit¬ 
uation of Chili*. How do you like the Chilian bridges ? 

Describe your course from Coquimbo, in Chili, by sea to Lima, and the 
places you pass. How must you travel over the mountains to visit Cusco ? 
In what direction from Cusco are the silver mines of Potosi ? Which way 
will you go to Quito ? To Bogota ? 

What course will you take from Bogota to Carthagena, Panama, and Porto 
Hello 7 And now find the shortest way to vonr home. 

11 * 


248 


POI.AK ItECilONS. 


POLAR REGIONS. 

I. 1191. TJie Polar Regions include the islands in the 
Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, lying in the Frigid Zones. 
In every part of these regions, the longest days and nights 
exceed 24 hours; and in most parts, the sun does not rise 
for several weeks or months in winter, and does not set for 
as many in summer, 

1192. Hence the lointcrs are intensely cold. The coast 
is always lined with ice. During the greater part of the 
year, the seas are frozen, and the land is covered with snow ; 
so that it is difficult to explore these countries, and we are 
only acquainted with the coast. 


ARCTIC REGIONS. 



(137) Aurora Borealis in the Arctic Regions. 


I. 1193. The long nights of the Arctic Regions are 
cheered by the Aurora Borealis, or northern lights, which 
enable the natives to pursue their occupation. 

I. Map of the World. — Which appears on the map to. be the largest 
body of land in the Arctic Regions ? What islands lie West of Greenland ? 
What islands in these regions lie North of the Eastern Continent ? For 
what are the Arctic Regions remarkable? (If 1193.) 

U. 1194. The coasts of the Arctic Regions are generally high 
and rocky, with bold promontories, covered with glaciers, which ex¬ 
tend for a considerable distance into the sea, '"They have many 















POLAR REGIONS. 249 

deep bays, gulfs, and harbors; but these are frozen during the 
greater part of the year. 

1195. 2Vie appearance of these regions is very desolate. For a 
short period only, during the summer, a scanty but beautiful vege¬ 
tation appears, which feeds a few wild animals; but very few 
vegetables can be cultivated. 

1196. The sea^ however, swarms with fish and amphibious ani¬ 
mals, especially tlie whale, the seal, tlie walrus, and the sea-ele¬ 
phant, whose flesh and oil afford the inhabitants the means of sub¬ 
sistence, warmth, and light, during their lono- winter of darkness. 
[See p. 138, H 540.) 

Amphibious animals are those which, like the walrus, and some kinds of 
turtle among us, live partly on the land and partly in the w^ater. 

1197. Greenland is the largest body of land we know in these 
regions. Spitzbergen is about 300 miles in length; and Melville 
Island^ and several islands near it, about 100. The whole JVbrthem 
Ocean seems to be an archipelago of islands, but the greater number 
of those yet visited are uninhabited. 

GREENLAND. 

I. 1198. Greenland is the only inhabited country of the 
Arctic Regions known to us, and resembles the rest in sur¬ 
face and climate. The natives are Esquimaux, who subsist 
chiefly by fishing for seals. {See ^ 1196.) 

X« Pol. M. of N. America. —■ How is Greenland bounded ? What moun¬ 
tains do you find ? How do the people subsist ? (IT 1196.) 

1199. The Greenlanders have no govem/nenf among them¬ 
selves, except that of families. They are generally Pagans, and 
are savages in their habits. A large number, who have become Chris¬ 
tians, reside at the missionary stations established by the Mora¬ 
vians, and have become civilized in their customs. 

1200. The king of Denmark possesses Greenland, and has estab¬ 
lished a number ot settlements on the Avestern coast for trading 
with the natives in tlie produce of tlieir fisheries. 2'he eastern 
coast is shut in ivith ice. 

XI■ Do you find any rivers or mountains in the interior of Greenland 
named on the map ? Why not ? (IT 1192.) What settlements do you find 
on the western coast, beginning at the South ? Are there any settlements 
on the eastern coast ? 

ANTARCTIC REGIONS. 

I. 1201. In the Antarctic Regions, the sea abounds in 
animals like those of the Arctic Regions, and many Amer¬ 
ican sealing vessels go there to procure the skins and oil of 
the seals; but they have found no inhabitants. 


250 


EUROPE. 


Z. Map of the World .— What lands in the Antai ctic Regions lie near¬ 
est to S. America ? In what directions ? What land nearest to !New 
Holland ? What animals are sought and killed here ? (IT 1201.) 

II. 1202. The land thus far discovered around the South Pole 
has the same general character with that of the Arctic Regions, 
but is still more desolate. Only a few islands were formerly 
known; but since 1819, detached portions of land have been dis¬ 
covered at various points, from the longitude of Cape Horn to that 
of Van Diemen’s Land, which are now supposed to belong to an 
Antarctic continent. 

1203. South Georgia and the Soidh Shetland Isles were formerly 
very valuable for their fisheries; but the animals sought for have 
been destroyed or driven aAvay, and the fishermen have discovered 
other portions of land where they were abundant, .S'. E. of Cape 
Horn. Of these, Graham’s Land, Palmer’s Land, and Enderby’s 
Land, are the principal. 

Ill- 1204. In 1840, the .American exploring expedition divseovered 
a long range of land, S. of New Holland, extending along the Ant¬ 
arctic Circle, from longitude 97° E., and visible some distance farther 
W., to longitude 165° E., a distance of nearly 70°, or, in this latitride, 
nearly 2000 English miles. A part of this was also discovered by 
the French expedition soon after. At a later period, the British expe¬ 
dition explored a portion of the same coast extending S. to lat. 78°, a 
distance of 500 miles ; and all these navigators suppose it to belong to 
a continent surrounding the pole. 

1205. The coast is high and mountainous. It is so covered and bor¬ 
dered with fields of ice, that it is difficult to land ; but it is found to 
consist of granite and volcanic rocks. Volcanoes have been observed 
in the various portions of land already mentioned 5 and the British 
expedition discovered one in full activity, which they called Mt. Ere¬ 
bus, and another, extinct, which they called Mt. Terror, forming part 
of a chain of mountains from 9,000 to 12,000 feet high. 

III. Map of the World.— Which way is Victoria Land from New Zealand.^ 
What volcanoes does it contain i What land due South of Van Diemen’.s Land .' 

EUROPE. 

I. 1206. The surface of Europe IS \ery irreguluY. High¬ 
lands and lowlands, valleys and plains, are mingled and*di- 
vided, so that each portion must be described separately. 

1207. The ptrincipal physical divisions are the north¬ 
eastern lowland, occupying the eastern half of Europe; 
the central highlands, lying in the centre, between this low¬ 
land and the Atlantic declivity ; and the peninsulas and 
islands on its coasts. 

Z. Qu. and Ex. —1206. What can you say of the surface of Europe ? 
1207. What are its principal physical divisions 1 Maps of World and F.n 


EUROPE. 


261 


rope. — On which continent is Europe ? In what zones ? How is it bound¬ 
ed ? What is the most northern cape ? Tlie most southern ? The most 
western, in Portugal? What is the comparative size of Europe ? {See 
p. 85, TI What figure will enclose the greater part of it? (H 249.) 

How large a part of it consists of peninsulas ? (TT 249.) Has it a large pro¬ 
portion of sea-coast ? (TT 250.) 

X. NORTH-EASTERN LOWLAND. 

1208. The north-eastern loicland of Europe is a vast re¬ 
gion of waving plains, extending from the Arctic Ocean tc 
the Black Sea and the Mountains of Caucasus, and from 
the Ural Mountains to the Baltic Sea and the central high¬ 
lands. In this way it forms one extensive country, protect¬ 
ed on all sides by mountains or seas. The following profile 
shows its situation and surface in latitude 65° North. 


DofrafUlS^Mts. 


It -u a s i a 


TTral^Mts. 



(138) Profile of Nortfiem Europe, in Latitude 65° North. 


Exercises on the Profile. — What highlands do you find in going E. from 
the Atlantic ? What sea next ? What terrace E. of the Baltic ? How is 
the land from Finland to the Ural Mts. ? 

1209. The Ural Mountains form the eastern boundary 
of this lowland. They consist of three parallel ranges, ex¬ 
tending South from the Gulf of Kara, until they are lost in 
the table land between the Caspian Sea and the Sea of 
Aral. 

They are a low chain, but in some parts quite broad. The Northern Ural 
is almost a naked mass of rocks. The Middle Ural is the highest part of 
the chain, but is most easily passed. It is rich in mines, and is the most 
thickly inhabited. The Southern or Woody Ural supplies the fuel for the 
furnaces connected with the mines. 

1210. The chain of the Caucasus forms a part of the 
southern border of the lowland. It is a loftier and broader 
chain than the Ural, but much shorter. It consists of sev¬ 
eral ranges, with deep chasms, and peaks of the first rank. 

1211. The north-eastern lowland has a narrow branch 
running westward, along the southern shore of the Baltic 
Sea, and forming the passage to Western Europe, which is 
called the German lowland. It is a region of sandy plains 
and marshe.*?, but has some tracts of fertile land. 





252 


EUROPE. 


1212. It terminates, on the North- West, in the peninsula 
of Denmark, which has the same character; and on the 
South-West, in the swamps of Holland, many of which are 
below the level of the sea. 

I, Qu. and Ex. — 1208. What can you say of the north-eastern low¬ 
land ? What does it form 1 1209. What do the Ural Mts. form '! What 

do they consist of? 1210. What can you say of the chain of the Caucasus ? 
1211. What branch has the N. E. lowland? Describe the German low¬ 
land. 1212. In what does it terminate on the N. W. ? On the S. W. ? 
Ehi/s. M. of Eumpe. — What part of Europe does the N . E. lowland oc¬ 
cupy ? How is it bounded ? {See also IT 1208—1210.) On what sea is the 
lowland of Germany ? What river has a delta on the western part ? 
Which way does the lowland peninsula of Denmark project ? 

1. CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF EUROPE. 

1213. The central highlands of Europe extend from the 
German lowland to the borders of the southern peninsulas, 
and from the Russian lowland to the western declivity of 
France. 

1214. These highlands may be divided into three portions 
— the eastern or Carpathian highlands. East of Bohemia; 
the middle or Alpine highlands, between these and the 
Rhine; and the western or French highlands. West of the 
Rhine. 

I, Qu. and Ex.' — 1213. How far do the central highlands of Europe 
extend? 1214. How may they be divided? Phys. M. of Europe. — In 
what part of the central highlands are the Alps ? What mountains N. of 
the Alps ? What basin lies N. of the Alps, or in the Alpine highlands ? 
What mountains in the eastern highlands ? What mountains in the French 
highlands W. of the Rhine ? 

XX. Carpathian Highlands. 

1215. The Caipaihian highlands form a triangle, lying between 
the Russian lowland and the valley of the River Danube, and ex¬ 
tending from the lower part of the Danube to tlie sources of the 
River Oder, and other streams which separate them from the basin 
of Bohemia. 

1216. They comprise the mountains and table land of Transyl¬ 
vania, the table land of North-western Hungary, and the basin of 
Bohemia. 

XX. The Alpine Highlands. 

1217. The Alpine highlands extend from the lowland of Lom- 


O. H. II. 

comprise.? 


1215. Describe the Carpathian highlands. 1216. What do they 




Ell HOP K. 


253 


bardy, on the S., to tliat of Germany on the N., lying between 
the Rhine and the lowland of Hungary. The Jllps fonn the main 
body of these highlands, and are the loftiest chain in Europe 
They extend^ in the shape of a crescent, from tlie Gulf of Genoa to 
the Adriatic Sea. 

1218. The Western or Maritime Alps, which run North from the 
Mediterranean Sea, consist of a single range of mountains of the 
second rank, which separate France from Italy. 

1219. The Middle Alps extend East from the valley of the Rhone, 
in several ranges, tlirough Switzerland. They contain the prin¬ 
cipal parts of tills chain, (of which Mt. Blanc is the highest,) the 
most extensive fields of ice and snow, and the most sublime and 
beautiful scenery. 

1220. The Eastern Alps commence in Tyrol, or Austrian Swit¬ 
zerland, and spread into a number of ranges, which terminate in the 
mountains of the Grecian Peninsula. 

1221. The Alps have a steep declivity towards the hasin of the 
River Po on the Soutli; but towards the jYorth, they descend grad¬ 
ually, in three terraces or table lands. 

1222. The Jura Mountains, which lie next North of the Alps, 
are a low range composed of limestone, extending north-east from 
the Lake of Geneva, across the Rhine, to the Danube. That part 
which lies S. W. of tlie Rhine is called the Swiss or French Jura, 
and the otlier portion, nortli-east of tlie Rhine, the German Jura, or 
Rauhe [row-a) Alp. 

1223. The first terrace of the Alps is the Swiss Bavarian table 
land, lying between tlie Alps and the Jura, and containing the 
northern part of Switzerland, and the southern part of Bavaria. It 
is a cold and somewhat rugged region, but still rendered produc-, 
live by the industry of tlie inliabitants. 

1224. Thje second terrace extends from the Jura to the valley of 
the River Mayne. It contains the northern parts of Bavaria and 
the kingdom of Wurtemberg, which have a better climate and soil 
than the first terrace. 

1225. The third teirace descends gradually from the River 
Mayne to tlie German lowland, and contains Saxony, and the Saxon 
and Hessian states. It has a milder climate and a great variety 
of soil. The profile on page 254 shows the mountains and terraces 
of the Alpine higlilands. 


A, 31. II. 1217. Wlrcre are the Alpine highlands ? What can you say 
of the Alps ? How far do they extend, and in what shape ? 1218. Describe the 
Maritime Alps. 1219. The Middle Alps. 1220. The Eastern Alps. 1221. Describe 
the declivity of the Alps. 1222. Where are the Jura Mts. ? Which is the Swiss 
Jura.? The German Jura.? 1223. What is the first terrace of the Alps .? What 
countries does it contain.? What can you say of its climate and productions? 
1224. Describe the second terrace. Its countries. Its climate and soil. 1225. De¬ 
scribe the third terrace of the Alps. What is its climate and soil.? 



254 EUROiS:. 



Exercises on the Profile. — What is the first cJiain of mountains N. of the 
Alps? What terrace lies between the mountains? How far does the 
second terrace extend ? The tliird terrace ? VV'^liat mountains in Jsorthern 
Germany ? What ridge of land ? 

1226. East of these terraces is tJie basin of Bohemia and Mora¬ 
via, separated from them by the Bohemian Mountains. It consists 
of table lands and terraces of moderate elevation, and contains the 
states of Bohemia and Moravia, which now belong to the Austrian 
empire. 

It is s^lrronnded by mountains, which made it, before the Reformation, an 
asylum for the Moravian Christians. 

1227. The Saxon Erzgetrirge, or Ore Mountains, form the north¬ 
western border of Bohemia. They are a low range, but are cele¬ 
brated for their rich mines, and inhabited almost to their tops. 

Jh’rg, in German, is a mountain; ge-bir-ge {ge-bcer-ge), mountains, or a 
chain of mountains; and erz {crtz) means ore. 

1228. On the West, the teiraces o f the Alps are bordered by the 
Schv/artzwald, or Black Forest Mountains, which separate them 
from tlie valley of the River Rhine. 

II. Western or French Highlands. 

1229. The Western or French highlands lie West of the River 
Rhine, and may be divided into northern and soutliern. The 
northern highlands of France consist of the Vosges and several 
other mountain ranges and table lands of moderate height, which 
give rise to its nortliern rivers. 

Vosges is pronounced Vozh, — ozh being sounded like oz in ozier. 

1230. The southern highlands of France 'comprise the table land 


II, 1226. What basin lies east of these terraces ? What does it consist of? 
What countries does it contain? 1227. Where are the Saxon Erzgebirge? 
(Ertz-ge-bir-ge.) What does this name mean ? 1228. How are the terraces of the 
Alps bordered on the west ? P, II, 1229. Where do the French highlands lie ? 
What do the northern highlands of France comprise? 12.30. The southern? 








EUROPE. 


255 


of Auvergne (pronounced O-vairn), which is covered with extinct 
volcanoes, and the ranges of the Forez Mountains and the Ce- 
vennes. 

1231. The Pyrenees, which separate France from Spain, are a 
^and chain of mountains, but less lofty and rugged than the Alps. 
The northei'n declivity, towards France, is gradual and fertile ; but 
th£ Spanish declivity is steep and rugged, and the passes are few 
and difficult. 

X. LOWLANDS AND DECLIVITIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE. 

1232. The loiolands connected icith Central Plurope consist 
of the Atlantic declivity, containing a part of France and 
Belgium, and the valleys of its rivers. 

1233. The lowland of France and Belgium is a declivity, 
extending from the Pyrenees to the River Scheldt. It is 
gencrcdly a waving, fertile country, watered by numerous 
streams, which serve also as channels of navigation. 

1234. The valleys of the rivers are generally very fertile, 
especially those on the lower course of the Rhine and 
Rhone, and that of the River Po, or the lowland of Lom¬ 
bardy. 

Z. Qu. and Ex. — 123S2. What lowlands are connected with Central 
Europe ? 1233. What can you say of the lowland of France and Belgium ? 

What of its surface and soil ? 1231. How are the river-valleys ? 

I. PENINSULAS AND ISLANDS. 

1235. (a) The peninsula of Denmctrk, or Jutland, be¬ 
longs to the German lowland already described. Each of 
the remaining peninsulas and islands has its own system of 
highlands and lowlands, and will be described separately. 

I. Qw. and —1235. (a) To what lowland does the peninsula of 
Denmark belong '! Wliat can you say of the other peninsulas and islands 'I 
Phys. Map of Europe. — What peninsulas are there in the northern part of 
Europe 'f What is the most northern point of the Scandinavian peninsula ? 
What large islands south-west of it ? What peninsulas in the South of 
Europe ? What is their most southern cape ? What peninsula in the 
Black Sea ? What large islands in the Mediterranean Sea ? What in the 
Baltic Sea? 

II. EXERCISES ON THE PHYSICAL MAP OF EUROPE. 

What seas are there around the peninsulas and islands in the northern 
part of Europe ? What two gulfs in the Baltic ? What are the straits or 
sounds called which lead into the Baltic Sea ? What seas around the 


II. 1231 What ran you say of the Pyrenees ? Of its declivities > 

17 



25G 


EUROPE. 


southern peninsulas of Europe ? What gulfs in the Mediterranean 1 What 
straits lead into the Mediterranean ? What straits lead into the Sea of 
Marmora ? What straits and channel separate England from France 1 

Highlands. —What do you find the surface of Europe in its centre, and 
how named ? What lowland N. E. of the central highlands 1 What branch 
N, of them ? What W. ? What on the S. ? Of what physical divisions 
does the remainder of Europe consist ? 

Central Highlands. — What mountain chain forms the most southern 
portion of the central highlands ? How many terratjes in the gradual de¬ 
clivity towards the N. ? (See IT 1221—5.) What mountains next IM. of the 
Alps ? What terrace lies between these chains ? What terrace N. of the 
Jura Mts. ? (TT 1224,) What basin occupies a part of it? Describe the 
third terrace and its mountains. (IT 1225, and profile.) 

What mountains form the border of the central highlands on the N. E. ? 
What name is used to comprise the whole system of mountains E. of the 
middle or Alpine highlands? (H 1214.) Describe the Carpathian system. 
(IT 1215.) What are its chief mountains ? 

What highlands lie West of the River Rhine ? (IT 1229.) What moun¬ 
tain range is next the Rhine ? What table lands in the N. ? What ranges 
and table lands in the S. ? {See also H 1230.) 

What large river-valley, with its terraces and lowlands, penetrates the 
central highlands on the E. ? What other in the western part of these 
highlands ? 

Rivers. — What large river rises in the central highlands of Europe which 
flows towards the E. ? What two others flowing ]V. W. and S. W. ? What 
river flows from the southern declivity of the Alps ? What considerable 
rivers flow into the Black Sea E. of the Danube ? What into the Sea of 
Azof ? What rivers E. of the Rhine flow from the northern declivity of 
the highlands ? Into what branches of the ocean ? What streams next S. 
of the Rhine ? What streams flow from the western declivity of the high¬ 
lands, and where do they empty ? 

In what ridge of land do most of the streams of the north-eastern lowland 
rise ? Into what seas do they flow ? 

Describe the source of the Danube, and its course in its upper, middle, and 
lower portions. What branches has it on the right or southern bank? 
What on the left; or northern bank ? Where does it empty, and by what 
kind of mouth ? What is its rank ? Describe the Rhine in the same man¬ 
ner. The Meuse. The Scheldt. The Rhone. The Po. 

Describe in the same manner the rivers flowing from the northern de¬ 
clivity of the central highlands. Which of these rivers belong to the basin 
surrounding the Baltic Sea? Describe those belonging to the same basin in 
the N. E. lowland. What rivers empty into the Baltic from the Scandina¬ 
vian peninsula ? What into the Skager Rack and Categat ? What streams 
of the continent eihpty into the N. Sea and British Channel ? What from 
G. Britain ? {The Tweed and Forth empty into it from Scotland.) What 
streams are there on the northern declivity of the north-eastern lowland ? 
Describe them. What on the southern declivity ? Into what seas do they 


EUROPE. 


257 


empty ? Where do the principal or western branches of the Volga rise ! 
The eastern ? Describe the Volga. The Don. The Dnyester (pro¬ 
nounced Dn-yes-ter). The Dnyeper {Dn-yep-er). What river is named 
in the Grecian peninsula ? What in the Italian peninsula ? What in the 
Spanish peninsula, on the E. ? What on the W. ? 

Lake;i. — What lakes do you find in the north-eastern lowland ? What in 
Scandinavia ? In what countries in the iN;. of Europe are lakes numer¬ 
ous ? Are there any among the Alps ? ( The Lake of (J-eneva is an expan¬ 

sion of the llhone, and Lake Constance^ of the Rhine.) Do you find any 
large lakes in the southern peninsulas of Europe, or on the Atlantic de¬ 
clivity ■? 

Z> PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

1235. (6) Europe is remarkable for the number of its 
physical and political divisions. The principal have been 
described, pp. 87, 88, and should now be reviewed on the 
maps. 

Is Q«. and Ex. —1235. (6) What can you say of the divisions of Eu¬ 
rope? What are its chief physical divisions ? (11 1207.) Maps of Europe. 

— Compare the Physical and Political Maps of Europe, and mention what 
country occupies the north-eastern lowland. What countries occupy the 
northern peninsulas ? The southern ? The British Isles ? What countries 
lie on the western declivity of Central Europe? On the north-western? 
What countries do you find in the central highlands ? What on the north¬ 
ern declivity, or the N. German lowland ? 

I. EXERCISES ON SITUATION. 

Oceans and Seas. — After studying the Physical Map of Europe, point out 
on the Political Map the Atlantic Ocean — The Arctic — The North Sea 

— The Baltic—The White — The Caspian — The Black —The Sea of 
Azof — The Sea of Marmora — The Mediterranean. 

Gulfs and Bays. — Point out in the same way the B, of Biscay —G. of 
Bothnia—G. of Finland — Archipelago — G. of Venice. 

Straits.—-In the same manner point out the following straits, and men¬ 
tion what waters are connected by them: Str. of Gibraltar — Dardanelles 

— Str. of Constantinople — Cattegat —Skager Rack — Str. of Dover — 
North Channel. 

Copes. — In what country, and in what part of it, is Cape North? C. 
Matapan ? C. St. Vincent ? C. Clear? The Naze ? What are the prin¬ 
cipal capes of Great Britain ? Of France ? Spain ? Italy ? 

Peninsulas. — Point out the following peninsulas, and mention what 
countries are situated on them: The Scandinavian. That of Denmark. 
The Spanish. The Italian. The Grecian. 

Islands. — Near what country of Europe, and in what direction from it, 
are the following islands situated: Great Britain—Ireland — Iceland — 
Corsica — Sardinia —Sicily — Candia ? Point out and name the other 


258 


EUROPE. 


islands in the Mediterranean. The islands N. of Scotland. Those in the 
Baltic Sea. Those in the British Channel. 

Mountains. — Where are the Pyrenees? The Alps? The Carpathian 
Mts. ? The Caucasus ? The Ural ? Dofrafield Mts., or Scandinavian 
Alps? What ranges do you find in Great Britain? What in France? 
What in Germany ? Switzerland ? In Russia ? Greece ? Italy ? Spain 
and Portugal ? Where is Mt. Vesuvius ? Mt. Etna ? Mt. Hecla ? 

Rivers. ■— What countries are traversed or separated by the following 
rivers? The Volga — The Don — Dnyeper — The Dnyester—The Dan¬ 
ube — The Po — The Rhone — The Ebro — Guadalquivir — Tagus — 
Douro •— Garonne — Loire — Seine — Scheldt — Meuse — Rhine —Elbe •— 
Vistula —Oder—Niemen —Duna—-Neva—Onega—Dwina—Petschora— 
Ural — Thames. In what country is each of the following branches ? The 
Mayne — Inn — Drave and Save — Bug — Pruth. 

Lakes. — In what country is each of the following lakes ? Ladoga, 
Onega, Peypus, and Ilmen ? Constance and Geneva ? Wenner, Wetter, 
and Maelar ? 

Relative Situations, or Cotirses and Bearings. — In what direction from 
London is Paris ? Rome ? St. Petersburg ? Edinburgh ? Which way 
from England is Spain ? What is the course from Madrid to Naples ? 
Naples to Constantinople ? About what latitude are these three last cities ? 
What city in the U. S. has about the same latitude ? Which way from St. 
Petersburg is Constantinople ? Which way is it from Paris to Vienna ? 

zx. NAVIGATION. 

1236. Europe is so much penetrated by branches of the sea, tliat 
its sea-coast is more extensive, in proportion to its surface, tlian that 
of any other part of the world. Almost every part of it has direct 
communication with the ocean, as well as with surrounding coun¬ 
tries, by means of its seas and gulfs. 

1237. But it is also traversed by numerous rivers, connected by 
canals, which extend the navigation to the inland regions. By this 
means, loots can pass through tlie body of Europe, from the south 
ern to the northern seas, and from the Mediterranean to the 
Atlantic. 

1238. The rivers on the western declivity of France and Belgium, 
afford navigation to the foot of the highlands. The passes at the 
highlands are so low, that all the great rivers of France are con¬ 
nected by canals with the Rhone and the Rhine, and thus with 
the Mediterranean and the central highlands. 

1239. TVie Rhine and the Rhone are navigated to the borders of 
Switzerland ; and for the greater part of tliis distance, by steamers. 

N. IXa 1236. How is the sea-coast of Europe ? What can you say of almost 
every country ? 1237. What other channels of navigation has it ? How far can 
boats pass through Europe ? 1238. What can you say of the rivers of the west¬ 
ern declivityAre they connected ? How ? 1239. What can you say of the 
navigation of the Rhino and the Rhone ’ 



CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. 


259 


ThB\j are connected by a canal, and thus furnish another communi¬ 
cation through tlie western part of Europe, from the Atlantic and 
Nortii Sea to tlie Mediterranean. 

1240. The rivers of the, German lowland are navigable tlirough 
the greater part of the lower ten-ace of tlie Alps. (H 1225.) A chain 
of canals from the Elbe to the Vistula opens the navigation from 
tlie Nortli Sea, across Prussia, to tlie interior of Russia and the 
Gulf of Finland. 

1241. The Niemen, tlie Vistula, and the Dwina, are connected 
by canals, with the Dnyeper [Dn-yep-er) ; and in tliis way, the boat 
navigation is extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. 

1242. The Volga and its branches afford navigation for boats, for 
2000 miles, from the Caspian Sea to most parts of Middle and 
Southern Russia. 

1243. It is also connected by canals with the Don and tlie North¬ 
ern Dwina, and with Lake Ladoga and the River Neva, so that 
Russia may be traversed by boats from the Black and the Caspian, 
to the Baltic and White Seas. 

1244. The Danube and its branches afford navigation from the 
Black Sea to the heart of tlie central highlands; and steamers as¬ 
cend some distance above Vienna. 

1245. The peninsulas and islands of Europe abound in bays and 
harbors, whicli give them the best advantages for foreign com¬ 
merce. All except Denmark are so mountainous, that tlie rivers 
are too rapid for inland navigation. 

1246. A canal across the sandy isthmus of Denmark, from Kiel to 
the River Eyder, and another from the Cattegat, at Gottenburg, to 
Stockholm, Vurnksh a passage for ships from the Nortli Sea to tlie 
Baltic, witliout going through the sound at Elsinore. 

SZ. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. 

1247. Europe lies entirely in the Temperate Zone, but it has a 
milder climate than other parts of this zone, for reasons already 
given. {See H 479, 489.) 

1248. The coarse grains and potato are cultivated, and dwarf trees 
gi-ow as far North as Hamersfert, on the coast of Norway, in lati¬ 
tude 71° Nortli. In j\orth America, scarcely any plants, and no 
human beings, are found in this latitude. 

1249. JVortho'n Europe, therefore, has the climate and productions 


U, 1240. Of the rivers of the German lowland } Of their canals : 1241. Ilow 
is navieation extended to the Black Sea } 1242. What can you say of the Volga ? 
1243. VV’^ith what streams is it connected by canals ? 1244. flow far is the Danube 
navigable.^ 1245. What can you say of the peninsulas and islands of Europe.^ 
124o. What canal connects the Baltic and North Seas.? C. &, P. 1247. In 
what zone does Europe lie ? How is its climate compared with others ? 1248. How 
far N. are the coarse pains and potatoes cultivated.? What do you find in this 
latitude in N. America? 1249. What are the climate and productions of Northern 
Europe.? 





260 


EUROPE. 


of the cold regions; but the crops are so scanty and uncertain, that 
the people are often obliged to mix tlie ground bark of trees with 
grain, to make tlieir bread. 

1250. South of latitude 60°, the crops are more sure, and ^yheat 
begins to grow. In latitude 50°, we find the harvests and fruits of 
the Temperate Regions. In JVoiih America^ in the same latitude, 
only a few vegetables can be cultivated. 

1251. The southern peninsidas of Europe have the climate of 
the Warm Regions, which extend here to 45° Nortli latitude, or 
9 degi-ees North of the same region in tlie United States, and 
produce finer fruits. 

1252. The most southern loivlands of these peninsulas have most 
of the productions of the Hot Regions, although the temperature 
is not so high. 

1258. The southern peninsulas rarely have snow, except u{)on 
* the mountains ; hxxi the winter is the season of rain. 'The summer 
is dry and hot, and the sky is constantly clear, as in the finest 
months of the year in the United States. 

1254. In the loestern part of Europe, North of latitude 45°, the 
climate is rendered moist by the prevailing winds from the Atlantic 
Ocean. (H 489.) The winters are less severe than in the United 
States ; but the summers are less hot, tlie sky is more clouded, and 
rain more frequent. 

1255. In consequence of the moisture, and the want of sun¬ 
shine, the fruits and crops do not always ripen, and the poor have 
often suffered, and great numbers perished, with famine. 

1256. In Sweden and Russia, the climate is more dry, tlie ivin- 
ters severe, and tlie summers hot. Grain and fruits are not found 
so far North as in the western countries. The climate resembles 
that of the interior of North America, but is still much warmer. 

1257. Centred Europe, including Germany and Switzerland, has 
the climate of elevated regions, varying with the height of the 
country. 

II, Exercises on the Chart of Climaies. — In what regions does Europe 
lie ? What parts of it are in the Frozen Regions ‘i What productions have 
they ? What countries in the Wintery and Cold Regions ? What must be 
their productions ? In what regions are the middle countries of Europe, 
and what are their productions ? ( The wine grape does not grow in Eng¬ 

land, Belgium, and the North of France, on account of the dampness of the 


II, How are the crops ? 1250. What do you find S. of latitude 60'’ ? What 
in latitude 50® ? How is it in N. America in the same latitude ? 1251. What 
can you say of the climate and productions of the southern peninsulas ? 
1252. How are their most southern lowlands ? 12.53. Do the southern penin¬ 

sulas have snow ? How are the winters ? The summers ? 1254. How is the 
climate in the western part of Europe ? The winters ? The summers ? 
1255. What effect has the moist climate on the fruits and crops ? 1256. How is 
the climate of Sw’eden and Russia.^ The grain and fruits.^ 1257. How is the 
climate of Central Europe ? 



INHABITANTS. 


261 


climate.) VVl;>at parts of Europe are in the Warm Regions? What fruits 
and other plants do they produce, which are not found in the other regions ? 

In what part of Europe do you find grain farthest North ? In which part 
must we expect the mildest climate, in the East or the West ? (Nee H 4tJ0.) 
Where shall we find the coldest winters and hottest summers ? 

III. INHABITANTS. 

VZoS. I'he hiliabitants of Europe belong to the European race, except the 
Laplanders and Samoiedes on the North-East, and the Tartars on the South- 
East. These tribes belong to the Asiatic race, and are half-barbarous, 

1259. The people of the European race are divided into three families of 
nations •— the Sclavonic, the Romish, and the Teutonic or German. Each 
of these families has languages strongly resembling each other, but differ¬ 
ing from those of other families, {See H 562.) 

1260. 2'he Sclavonic family inhabit the eastern part of Europe, beyond 
the borders of Germany and Sweden, and retain something of tlie character 
of the people of Asia, from which they came. 

1261. They profess the Christian religion, and are generally of the Greek 
church, but are less advanced in knoioledge and arts than the other 
families. 

1262. The Roman family occupy the southern peninsulas and France. 
They are almost all Roman Catholics in religion. The people are kept in 
ignorance, for want of schools and of the Bible. In knowledge and arts, 
they are superior to the Sclavonic family j but, except in France, they are 
generally inferior to the German family. 

1263. 'The nations of the Sclavonic and Roman families have generally 
been subject to absolute monarchsj and France is the only one in which a 
free govemment is fully settled. 

1261. The Teutonic or German family inhabit Central and Northern Eu¬ 
rope, and the British Isles. In religion they are generally Protestants. 

1265. In most of these nations, schools are provided for all 5 the Bible is 
generally read; and the government is free. They excel all other nations 
of Europe, except France, m science and arts; and the people are much 
superior to the French in education. 

1266. Europeans are the chief manufacturers for other parts of the world j 
and their manufactures are generally superior to those of all other countries, 
except those settled by them. 

1267. Europe has peculiar advantages for commerce, as already stated, 
from its central situation, (U 157,) and from the extent of its sea-coast, (Tf 25 O 5 ) 


I» ZXX« 1258. To what race do the inhabitants of Europe belong? What 
tribes belong to the Asiatic race ? 1259. How are the people of the European race 
divided? 12fi0. Where do we find the Sclavonic family? 1261. What is their 
religion ? What is the state of the arts and knowledge? 1262. Where do the 
Roman family reside ? What is their religion generally ? How are the people ? 
What is the state of knowledge and arts? 1263, How are the nations of the 
Sclavonic and Roman families governed ? 1264, Where do we find the German 
family ? What are they in religion ? 1265. What can you say of most of these 
nations ? 1266. Do Europeans manufacture for other parts of the world ? 1267. 
How are they in commerce ? 



262 


EUROJt*E. 


and its inhabitants and their descendants have long been the most commer¬ 
cial and enterprising people izi the world. “ Its sails whiten every sea; 
and its languages are heard in every port on the globe.” 

1268. Europeans discovered the new world of America and Oceanica, and 
the inhabitants of the Lnitcd States, and most parts of America, are their 
descendants. They have established coZonies in the most distant countries j 
and Europeans and their descendants not only cover America, but are be¬ 
ginning to form large colonies in Asia, in Africa, and in Oceanica. 

COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 

I. 1269. When we sail North-East from the United 
States, the Jirst country which we find in Europe is the 
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or the British Isles, 
— the land of our forefathers; and on the continent. East 
of thesc^ are the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Swe¬ 
den, and the empire of Russia, which are the northern 
countries of Europe. 

1270. South of the Ealtic Sea, are Holland, France, and 
other countries occupying the middle regions of Europe; 
and next to these, the southern peninsulas of Europe. 

KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

I. 1271. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland consists of these two islands and many smaller ones 
around them, and is one of the most powerful states of 
Europe. The Island of Great Britain is divided into Eng¬ 
land and Wales on the South, and Scotland on the North. 

I. Political Map of Europe. — Which arc the two largest of the British 
Isles ? What divisions do you find in (Ireat Britain ? What islands are 
there W. and N. of Scotland ? What in the Irish Sea 7 What in the Eng¬ 
lish Channel ? (AU these belong to Great Britain.) 

ENGI-AND AND WALES. 

I, 1272. England is remarkable for its fine roads and 
bridges, and also for its numerous canals and railways, 
which often pass through mountains and over rivers. 

I. M. of Great Britain. — How is England bounded? What channel 
and straits separate it from I'rance ? What is its capital ? For what is it 
remarkable? (IT 1272.) 

IX. 1273. The. surface of England is generally level; but the 

1268. What countries did they discover.^ Who are their descendants .=* Where 
have they colonies? 




ENGLAND AND WALES. 


263 



(140) Canals and Railways hi England. 


western peninsulas of Cornwall and Wales are mountainous; and 
a range of highlands passes from them, along the western coast 
The general surface may be seen in the following profile. 


}[ow do you ascend -s 
and descend, in cross- 
ing England from East 
to West \ I ^ 

1274. The soil of g 
England is uncom¬ 
monly fertile, Avell 



(141) Profile of England. 


watered and well cultivated. The climate is moist, and gives the 
fields, and the hedges which divide them, peculiar freshness and 


beauty. 

1275. The produclions are those of the Temperate Regions, 
except the delicate fruits; but the crops do not always ripen, for 
want of sunshine. 

1276. England is rich in mines of copper, iron, tin, coal, and 
salt, and exports large quantities of these articles. 

XX ■ 47 of G. li. — In which part of England are its mountains ? What 
rivers on the eastern side ? What on the western ? What river bounds it 
on the North I 


XXX. 1277. The higher classes in England^ who are called noble¬ 
men and orentlemen, own most of the land, and are well educated, 
wealthy, and luxurious. The middle classes are engaged chiefly in 
manufactures or commerce, or in professional business, and are also 

well instructed. n ^ i * • 

1278. The laboring classes are not generally so well taught as tn 
the United States ; but they are industrious, and very skilful in agri¬ 
culture and manufactures. 


12 










264 


EUROPE. 


1279. In agriculture and manufactures^ England surpasses almost all 
other countries. The coo-st abounds in bays and harbors, wliich are sel¬ 
dom frozen : its internal commerce is great j and its foreign commerce^ 
with all parts of the world, exceeds that of any other country on the globe 
TTY On what river does London stand i Where does the Thames empty. 
What seaports are there on the North Sea.? What on the English Channel.' 
What on the western coast.' Where are the great manufacturing cities of Bir¬ 
mingham and Manchester .' W^here are Cambridge and Oxford, with their univer¬ 
sities .' What other towns do you find, and where .' 

SCOTLAND. 



(142) Shepherds in Scotland. 


I, 1280. Scotland is gencralh/ a rnoiintaiiious and rug¬ 
ged country, especially in tl-e liighhmds of the northern 
part, and is celebrated- for the grandeur and wildness of its 
lake and mountain scenery. It is best fitted for feeding 
sheep and cattle, and even the waving, iiilly lotolands of the 
South are chiefly used for pasturage. 

i?/. of G. Jhitain. — flow is Scotland bounded? WJint is its cap¬ 
ital ? On which coast is it I For what is Scotland remarkable ? For what 
is it best fitted ? (IT 1280.) 


Ben J^evis. 


Grampian 



HartfeU. 





(143) Profile of Scotland from North-West to Soadh-East. 
flow do you ascend and descend, and what mountains do you pass on this 
section, in going from the Hebrides to the south-eastern part of Scotland ? 


















[RE LAND. 


265 


XZ. 1281. The soil of Scotland is generally barren. The cli¬ 
mate is moist, cold, and stormy, but less so than in Norway, in the 
same latitude. Grass and the coarse grains are tlie principal 
productions. 

SIX. 12S2. IVte Scotch are among the best taught, and tlie most in¬ 
telligent, moral, and industrious people of Europe ; and Scotland is 
distinguished for its literary institutions and learned men. 

128d. The. manufactures are extensive and excellent-; and commerce 
and the fisheries are important. 

128^1. Thk Hkbridks, Okknkv and Shetland Islands, near Scot¬ 
land, are about 400 in number. They are generally rocky and barren ; 
and their inhabitants live chiefly by fishing, fowling, and the pasturage 
of a fevv'^ sheep and cattle. 

ITI, What seaport.s has Scotland on the eastern coast ? Wliat on tJie west¬ 
ern What places have universitiesWhere are the Hebrides.^ The Orkney 
Islands The Shetland Islands ? In what region is Scotland on the Chart of 
Climates ? Why is it milder than the continent ? (TT 479.) 


IRELAND. 



(144) Poverty and Riches in Ireland. 


1285. The land owners of Ireland are rich and lux¬ 
urious; but the laborers are poor and wretched beyond 
most others in Europe. They are often furnished by their 
landlords with huts little better than those of the Indians. 

I. M. of G. B. — How is Ireland bounded? Wiiat is its capital, and 
where ? What is the state of the people ? (IT 1285.) 

XX. 1286. Ireland is generally a waving, well-watered, fertile 
country. It contains numerous hogs and marshes, which supply 

^^1287^ The climate is very mild and moist, and produces a beau- 












26G 


EUROPE. 


tiful and continual verdure in the fields, which has given it the 
name of “ The Green Isle of the Ocean.” But the crops do not 
ripen so well as in England; and famine is not unfrequent. 

1288. The greater part of Ireland is devoted to pasturage ; and 
the potato fields supply the principal food of the poor. 

TLIX. 1289. The laboring people of Ireland are ignorant and op¬ 
pressed by their landlords. Many emigrate to the United States, and 
are among the most hardy and industrious of the inhabitants. 

12;)0. Jigriculture is badly conducted. Some vianufactures are irn- 
)yortant; but commerce is chiefly carried on by the English and 
Scotch. 

III. What large city and seaport is tliere in the Soutli of Ireland } What 
seaports on the other coasts? What town on a river {the Shannon R.) in the in¬ 
terior? What places have universities ? 

m. FOREIGN BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 

1291. The British Empire embraces not only the British Isles, but nu¬ 
merous possessions in all parts of the world, which are so cxtetisive, that 
tlie sun never sets on all parts of its dominions. The following are in Eu¬ 
rope 5 and the rest will be described under each grand division. 

1292. Heligoland consists of two islands opposite the mouth of the 
Elbe, one of which is a lofty rock. It is possessed by Great Britain, and 
inhabited only by Danish fishermen and a British garrison. 

1293. Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark, are small islands ly¬ 
ing on the coast of France. The inhabitants speak the old Norman French, 
and are governed by their own laws, under the authority of Great Britain. 

1291. Gibraltar is a lofty, rocky peninsula of Spain, at the entrance 
of the Straits of Gibraltar, which has been made an impregnable fortress, 
and is occupied by the British. It is a free port, and a place of great trade ; 
and the bay forms a fine harbor for ships navigating the Mediterranean 
Se.a. (p. 51.) 

1295. Malta, an island in the Mediterranean, and the same with the 
ancient Melita, on which St. Paul was shipwrecked, is the chief of a group 
of rocks rising from the sea, which were covered with soil brought from 
other countries. These islands are now strongly fortified and well culti¬ 
vated ; and are more populous than any other part of Europe. 

1296. The Ionian Islands, on the coast of Greece, are under the pro¬ 
tection of Great Britain, with a British governor. 

Political 3Iap of Europe. — What places on the continent of Europe near 
to Heligoland ? What to Jersey ? What to Gibraltar? What places op¬ 
posite in Africa ? 

NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 

I, 31. of E. — What two peninsulas are there in the north-western part 
of Europe ? What countries do they contain ? What other country E. of 
Sweden covers the rest of Northern Europe ? 

DENMARK. 

I, 1297. Denmark was once distinguished for its extensive 
commerce and its navy, but is now reduced., Its chief 
revenue is obtained from the tolls paid by every vessel that 


DENMARK. 267 

passes through “ The Sound,” or strait at Elsinore, which 
is guarded by a castle. 



(1k>) Castle at Elshwre, on the Sound. 


3L ff K. — How is Denmark bounded 1 What islands belong to it ? 
What is its capital, on the Island of Zealand ? Where is Elsinore, and what 
is p i‘d tiif're / (IT 1297.) 

ES, 121)8. Denmark is one of the smallest countries of Europe. 
]t is s'tnated on a narrow peninsula, and a few neighboring islands, 
which form a part of the German lowland already described. 
(H 1211.) 

1211!). The soil, in some parts of the peninsula, is marshy or 
sandy; but a considerable part of it is quite productive, and the 
islan ls are very fertile. 

1800. The climate is moist, like that of Great Britain, and much 
milder than that of Russia and Sweden in the same latitude. 
The pastures are excellent, and the harvests supply more than is 
wanted for the use of the country. 

ZZ. What straits or passages separate Denmark from Sweden and Nor¬ 
way ? lias it any mountains F What river has it ? { See Map of Germany.) 

STS. 1801. The Danes have numerous schools, and are well taught 
and industrious. They have few manufactures ; but the seas around 
them give them great advantages for commerce and the fisheries, in 
which they are much engaged. 

1302. Denmark possesses Iceland and the Faroe Isles in Europe, 
and the islands of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John’s, in the West 
Indies, together with colonies in Greenland and Hindoostan, and/ur<s 
on the coast of Northern Guinea. 

UJ, Where is Iceland.’ Where are the Faroe Isles.’ Greenland? (See 
Map of the fVorld.) 

1303. Iceland and the Faroe Isles are rugged, dreary islands. 
Iceland contains several volcanoes, and large tracts are covered with 

























266 


EUROPE. 


lava. It is remarkahle for the Gejsers, or hot spouting springs. (Sec 
IT 378.) 

1304. The climate is milder than tliat of Norway, and the tcinters 
are less severe than those of Germany ; but grain cannot be raised ; a 
few vegetables are cultivated with difficulty 5 and trees are unknoAvn. 

1305. The 'people are simple and intelligent, and in Iceland are 
well taught. They subsist chiefly by fishing and pasturage, and 
gather the down of the eider-duck, which is an important article of 
commerce, both from Iceland and the Faroe Isles. 

HAMBURG AND LUBECK. 

III. 1306. Hambcrg and Lubeck are free cities, with a republican 
government, which lie within the boundaries of Denmark. They are im¬ 
portant commercial ports. 

Ill, On what island is Elsinore? (The passage here is called “The 
Sound.’ ) Map of Germany. — Where is the Danish city of Altona, in the 
South ? What free city is near it ? Where is Lubeck ? Kiel ? What 
places have universities ? By what canal and riA'er can you cross the isth¬ 
mus of Denmark? (See IT 1246, and Map.) 

In what region-is Denmark as to climate? (See Chart of Climates.) 
Why is its climate milder than that of the interior? (See IT 479.) What 
are the government, religion, and state of civilization of Denmark ? ( See 

Moral Chart.) 

SWEDEN. 



(146) Mines in Sweden. 

I, 1307. The great wealth of Sweden consists in its 
n in eroiis mines, which supply many other countries with 
tiie l',8st iron and copper. 

I, M.cfE .—‘How is Sweden bounded? What is its capital? F'or 
vvh ;t is it remarkable ? (Ti 1307.) 

1308. Sweden lies on the eastern declivity of the Scandina¬ 
vian Alps, or Dofrafield Mountains, Avhich descend by terraces to 
tlie Gulf of Bothnia, as in the profile on page 270. 


















NORWAY. 


269 


1809. The surface is hilly, and is crossed by numerous xow 
raii'^es of naked rocks, and cut by deep chasms ■which contain 
rivers and lakes. 

lolO. The soil is productive where it is sufficiently deep, as in 
the southern parts, but generally forms only a thin covering on the 

The climate in the Soidh ripens the fruits and grain of the 
Cold Regions ; but the northern parts are too cold, rugged, and 
barren for cultivation. 

S^'ircely one thirtieth part of Sweden can be cultivated ; nearly two thirds 
of its surface is uninhabited; and it is really one great Sorest, with a tew 


cleared districts. 

XI j What mountains border Sweden on the W.? Has it many rivers 
and I tk.es I Where do most of the rivers empty ? \V Inch are some of the 
largest ? What are the principal lakes ! What islands on the coast ot 

Sweden on the S. L. ? j • j • 

TTTf 1312. The Swedes are intelligent, well taught, and mdustnous, 
but are not able to produce or vianufacture what they need. 9 heir 

fisheries and commerce are important. ^ . r. . 

l:n3 jXorwau is under the government of the king of Swedtn , 
and the Island of St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, belongs to tins 


kincrdoiii. , ■ . .u 

TS-T On what lake is Stockholm.? What large lake is connected with the 
oiiieia canal unites these lakes.) What seaport has Siveden on the t- at^eg.U. 

* « • V _ Qr\iith r\f Ptnrkliolni ^ liRt plciccs North of Stock* 

What on the eastern coa^ > universities ? See on the Chart of Climates 

in wVi vtVe'dons Sweden lies. 'What plants may we expect in the northern parts? 
W^atlii th^SdTe? What in the South? What is its government, religion, 
and state of civilization ? (See Moral Chart.) 

NORWAY. 



(147) Fiord in Norway. 

r 1314 T /«6 u/iVomffiy is high and rocky, and IS 

L by deep bays called fiords, whose shores are the chief 
idence of the inhabitants. 














270 


EUROPE. 


!■ M. of E. _How is Norway bounded ? Wlxat is its capital ? How 

is Its coast ? 1314.) 


■>5 



Exercises on the Profile. — Does Norway rise steep from the sea ? How 
are its mountains divided 1 What country lies on the eastern declivity of 
the mountains ? Is this declivity steep 1 


H. 13J5. Norway lies on the steep western declivity of the 
Scandinavian Alps, as represented in the profile. 

1316. Us surface is very rugged, consisting chiefly of ridges of 
rocks, divided by chasms or deep valleys. It has a narrow laivland 
on the coast, on which most of the towns are built. 

1317. The coast is lined with peninsulas and islands, wliich form 
numerous small hays and harbors; and the people are obliged fo 
travel chiefly in boats, even in attending public warship, 

1318. The sail is barren. The climate is milder than in Sweden, 
but it is so mpist, that even the coarse grains do not easily ripen. 
The people are generally obliged to make their hixad in part of 
the bark of trees; and most of their food is obtained from thehr 
fisheries and cattle. 

III. 1319, Norway contains valuable mines of iron, copper, and 
silver; and these, with the lumber of their forests, and the produce 
of their fisheries, furnish their chief exports. 

132U. The JVorwe<rians are intelligent, well taught, and industrious, 
and were once amongst the most powerful and commercial nations of 
Northern Europe. Theij nuinvfaeture in families most of the articles 
they need, and carry the products of their country abroad in their 
own ships. 

III. What seaports has Norway on the Atkintric Ocean i* What on the Skag- 
cr Rack and its branches ? Where is Kongsberg, remarkable for its silver miaes ^ 
Where are the Loffoden Isles, with the great whirlpool called the Maelstrom i* 
What places have universities in Norway.'* Find, on the Chart of Climates, in 
what regions Norway ties. Will it have a moist or a dry climate ? (IF 479.) What 
productions may we expect ? What is the government, religion, and. state of civ¬ 
ilization, of Norway ? 

LAPLAND. 

I, IS^l. Lapland is the country lying between the 
Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea, and the Arctic Ocean, 
including the northern parts of Norway, Sweden, and Rus¬ 
sia. It is so cold and unproductive, that reindeer are 
almost the only animals that can subsist, aud the pteople 





RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


271 


live on their milk and flesh, dress in their skins, and use 
them to carry burdens and draw their sledges. 

Za M. of E. — Where is Lapland? For what is it remarkable? 
(H 1321.) Do you find any large streams here? What Swedish town on 
the Gulf of Bothnia ? Do you find any towns in Lapland ? 

IS. 1322. Lapland has a barren soil and a severe climate, and 
produces little except tiie moss and grass on which the reindeer 
feeds, 

1323. The Laplanders are ignorant and barbarous, but mild 
and honest. They have some trade with the Swedish town of 
Tornea, to obtain supplies of food and manufactured articles. 

RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 

I. 1324. The Russian Empire extends from the Baltic 
Sea, across Europe and Northern Asia, to the north¬ 
western coast of America. It reaches more than half 
round the globe, and comprises one ninth part of the in¬ 
habited world. 

1325. It consists of Russia, Poland, the provinces of the 
Caucasus, Siberia, and Russian America, each of which is 
described under the head of the grand division to which it 
belongs. 

RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 



(149) Russian Village. 


I. 1326. The winters of Russia are severely cold ; and 
then, the snow paths furnish the best roads for travelling, 
by the shortest course, over fields, fences, and marshes 

J2* 















272 


EUROPE. 


1327. T/ie of it is covered with forests; and 

the villages consist chiefly of houses built of logs or solid 
timber, which are warmer than those of brick or stone. 

!■ M.ofE. — How is Russia bounded ? WJiat is its capital, and where 7 
What are the best roads in Russia 7 (H 132G.) How are its villages built ? 
(IT 1327.) 

IX. 1328. Russia occupies the north-eastern lowland of Europe, 
and is more extensive than all the rest of its countries together, but 
more thinly inhabited. It extends from the Arctic Ocean to the 
Black Sea, and the southern declivity of the Caucasus. 

1329. It is generally a level or waving country, Avith no eleva¬ 
tions except two low ridges of hills— the JVorlh Russian Ridge^ 
which extends from the borders of the Baltic Sea to the Ural 
Mountains ; and the South Russian Ridge, Avhich runs North of the 
Black and Caspian Seas, 'j’he folloAving profile shoAvs the gen 
eral surface of Russia. 



Exercises on the Profile. — Describe the character of the surface, from 
the Arctic Ocean to the North Russian Ridge. What is it between the two 
ridges I Wliat S. of the Southern Ridge 7 Where do Ave first find moun¬ 
tains in going S. from Archangel 7 

1330. These ridges divide Russia into three portions. The north¬ 
ern part is level, but ban*en, and covered with swamps and mossy 
plains. The climate is also so cold that crops cannot be raised, and 
few trees can groAv. The soulhern part is fertile on the Black Sea, 
but elseAvhere it is a region of steppes and deserts. The summers 
are so Avarm that the wine grape is cultivated, but the ivinters are 
often severe. 

1331. The middle region is a fertile, Avell-watered country, cov¬ 
ered with forests, or rich pastures and cultivated fields. It has the 
continental climate, Avith hot summers and severe winters, but 
feAver changes than in Western Europe. 

IX. Into how many seas do the rivers of Russia empty 7 How many de¬ 
clivities must it have then 7 (See TI 388.) In Avhat direction does the land 
slope in the northern part? In the southern? In the western part? 
What is a water-shed ? (U 387.) Where is the water-shed between the 
northern rivers of Russia and the Volga ? Where are the Valdai Hills ? 
What river rises in them ? Where does it empty 7 What rivers of Russia 
empty into the Black Sea and Sea of Azof? What into the Baltic Sea? 







THE CAUCASUS, GEORGIA, AND CIRCASSIA. 273 

VViiat luto tlie Wliitu Sea 1 What into the Arctic Ocean ? What lakes 
aro there near the llaltic Sea ? 

111. 1332. Russia contains inhabitants of various races, laiiijuage.'f, 
and religions. The steppes and deserts, on the North-East and^'South- 
East, are inhabited by Sainoiedes, 'l\artars, and other wandering 
Asiatic tribes, who are generally Eagan or Mahometan. The 7 iUiT‘ 
d'e and southern parts are inhabited by Russians, Poles, and Ger¬ 
mans, who are Christians. 

1333. The Russians are divided into two principal classes — the 
nobles, who own nearly all the land, aitd the “boors ” or farmers, who 
are their slaves, and are ignorant, rude, and half barbarous. 

1334. Pasturage is most generally pursued, and the ground is 
poorly cultivated ; but the rich soil renders the products abundant and 
the nobles wealthy. Russia also contains valuable inines of iron, 
copper, silver, gold, and diamonds. Some manufactures of the metals, 
as well as of cordage, sail-cloth, and leather, and some other articles, 
are extensive and important. 

133.5. These and other products of the herds and the fields furnish 
important exports, and give rise to extensive foreign as well as inland 
commerce. It is carried on, not only by sea, but by caravans overland, 
to the interior of Asia and China. 

Xil. What se.iports are tlicre ou the White Sea ? What division of Russia 
lie.^ North of the Gulf of Finland AVhat seaport has it? Where is Cronstadt, 
the seaport of Potersbur".' Wh.ot seaports in Finland.^ What seaports on the 
LI ifk Sea ? What on the Caspian Sea ? 

Where is -Moscow, the ancient capital of Russia.? What cities do you find on 
the River Voltja, following the main stream, from the Valdai Hills to its mouth? 
Wh.-.t on its .•'a.R-rn branclie.s.= What ou its we.stern branches.? 

What cities in the valley of the River Don .? What ou the Dnyeper.? (Dn-yep-er.) 
What on the Vistula.? On tlie Nieinen .? On the Dwina.? On the Northern 
Dwina.? What places have universitiesr 

Where are the frozen, uninhabited, Russian i.slands of Spitzbergen and Nova 
Zemlila? Find, on the Ch.irt of Climates, in what regions Russia lies. What 
products may we e.xuect in the North .? Whut in the middle regions.? What in 
tiie Houth? Wliat is the government of Russia? (Sec Moral Chart.) The pre- 
vailin'f religion.? The general state of civilization.? Are any portion.^ of the 
country and people enlightened .? 

THE CAUCASUS, GEORGIA, AND CIRCASSIA, 

i. 1336, The Province?^ of the Caucasus, Georgia, and 
Circassia, lie between the Caspian and Black Seas, and are 
claimed, and in part possessed, by Russia. They are in lliis 
way more connected with Europe than with Asia; and some 
of the people are among the most beautiful of the European 

race. 

I, M. of E. — Wliere ajre Circassia and Georgia7 WTiat mountains and 
seas'around these countries 7 What is the chief town of Georgia 7 What 
is remarkable in some of the people 7 (IT 133G.) 

II. These countries are generally rugged and unproduc¬ 
tive ; but they have some commerce. A few of iJw various tnbes 


EUKOFE. 


274 

profess to be C^hristians; but they are generally barbarous, and 
some are mere bands of robbers. 

II. What rivers are there in Georgia? ^Vhat seaports on the Caspian 
Sea? 

POLAND. 

I. 1338. Poland was formerly a powerful country, and 
at one time conquered Russia ; but it has since been con¬ 
quered, and is now divided between Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia. The largest i>art belongs to Russia. 

I. M.ofE. — Where is Poland? What was it formerly? (IT 1338.) 
To whom does the largest part belong ? Where is Warsaw, its capital ? 
What rivers do you find in Poland ? 

II. 1339. Poland is a level, well-watered, fertile region.^ Us 
climate is cold and moist; but Us harvests are abundant, and it ex- 
poHs a large quantity of wheat and other grain. 

ZII. 1340. The Poles still retain their own language, customs, and 
relio-ion; but the only independent part is the free city, or Republic 
of Cracow, in Austrian Poland. They are generally dicided^ like the 
Russians, into wealthy nobles, and miserable, oppressed boor.s. The 
people are generally ignorant; they have little skill in agriculture or 
manufactures^ and leave the important commerce in their productions 
chiefly to Jews, who are very numerous here, and to foreigners. 

MIDDLE COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 

I, 1341. The middle countries of Europe lie between 
45° and 55° of North latitude, and liave a temperate climate, 
with nearly the same productions. They include Hol¬ 
land, belonging to the German lowland; Belgium and 
France, on the Atlantic declivity; and Switzerland and 
Germany, on the central highlands. 

I. M. of E. — Wliat countries lie between the Baltic and the Mediter¬ 
ranean Seas? Which lie on the Atlantic and North Sea? Between what 
sea on the North, and mountains on the South, is Germany ? Is Switzer¬ 
land near the sea, or inland ? 

HOLLAND. 

I. 1342. Holland was formerly a marsh, and a large part 
of it is lower than the sea. It is surrounded by dikes or 
banks, and is drained by canals. These pass through the 
country in every direction; are used instead of roads; 
and are traversed by means of boats in summer, and on the 
ice in winter. 

The canals are often higher than the country around; and the water is 


BELGIUM. 275 

pumpjed into them by means of numerous windmills, which are continually 
in motion. 

Z. M. of Ger. — How is Holland bounded ? What sea does it enclose ? 
Wliat is its capital, lying on the Zuyder Zee 1 What is remarkable in Hol¬ 
land ? (IF 1342.) 

£1. 1343. Holland lies at the we.stern extremity of the German 
lowland, on the delta of the Rhine, and its surface is flat and moist. 
The soil is highly cultivated, and foi’ms rich pastures and produc¬ 
tive fields. 

The German Duchy of Luxemburg, on the eastern border of Belgium, 
which belongs to Holland, is a lertile, but more elevated and dry country. 

1-344. Holland has a maritime climate. [See IF 480.) It produces 
wheat, flax, and most plants of the Temperate Regions, except the 
delicate fruits ; but it is chiejhj devoted to pasturage. 

ZZ» What great nver empties itself in Holland ? Has it one or many 
mou hs I What towns do you find around Amsterdam ? 

m. 1345. The Dutch are well taught, and remarkable for their 
industry and perseverance. They excel in agriculture^ and have 
some important manufachires. T\\e\i' fisheries and commerce are ex¬ 
tensive and valuable. 

1346. Holland has colonies in many of the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago, and ohtams from them pepper, spices, and other valu¬ 
able products of the Torrid Zone, ’with which it supplies other nations. 

1347. It also possesses a part of Guiana, the Islands of Cura<;oa 
and St. Eustatia, in the West Indies, and several forts on the coast of 
Northern Guinea. 

Ill, What cities do you find besides Amsterdam .!> In what region, as to cli. 
mate, is Holland ? (See Chart of Climates.) What is its government, religioii, 
and state of civilization? (See Moral Chart.) 


BELGIUM. 

1. 1348. Belgium (formerly called Flanders) is a level 
country, remarkable for the battles fought on its plains by 
the nations around it. The last great battle was at Water¬ 
loo, near Brussels, in 1815 ; when the fields were covered 
with the dead and wounded, as far as the eye could reach. 

I, M. of Ger. — How is Belgium bounded 1 What is the capital ? For 
what is it remarkable ? (IF 1348.) 

II. The northern part of Belgium belongs to the delta of tlie 
Rivere Rhine and Scheldt, and is low, flat, and cut up by canals, 

like Holland. , ^ -n, 

1349. The southern part belongs to the declivity of F ranee, 
{see II 1233,) and is a waving or hilly country, remarkable for its 
fertility and beauty. 

1.350. The climate is temperate, and is less moist and more pleas¬ 
ant than that of Holland, The .soil is well cultivated; and the 


270 


EUROPE. 


productions of the Temperate Regions are abundant, except tlic 
delicate fruits. 

Xm. The Belgians are ignorant and superstitious, but they 

are industrious, and remarkable for their skill in agriculture and man¬ 
ufactures. They have a valuable and increasing commerce., both by 
land and sea. 

1352. Schools are now generally established, as well as universities., 
and the people are improving in knowledge ; but most of them are not 
allowed to read the Bible. 

£ZZ. What other towns do you find in Belgium besides the capital ? Look 
on the Moral Chart, and see what is the government of Belgium. What is the 
prevailing religion I The state of civilization ? 

FRANCE. 



(151) Peasants dancing. 


I. 1353. France abounds in vineyards, so that wine is 
the common drink of the people. It is a favorite amuse¬ 
ment of the laborers to dance, especially after the grapes are 
gathered. 

I, Pol. M. of E. — How is France bounded? What is its capital? 
What can you say of the drink and amusements of the people ? (IT 1353.) 

IS. 1354. The ea.stern pari of France is occupied by the fruit¬ 
ful valleys of the Rhine and tlie Rhone, and a range of mountains 
and table lands, which are crossed by a number of roads and 
canals. 

1355. The western part descends in gentle declivities towards 
the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, and is a waving, well- 











SVVITZK1U.AND. 277 

Watered, fertile region. The following profile shows tlie surface 
of the South of France, in crossing it from W. to E. 



(152) Profile of SoutJiern France. 


Exercises on the Profile. — Describe the surface of Southern France, from 
the Atlantic Ocean to the valley of the Rhone, as it appears in the profile. 

1356. The soil of France is more fertile, and its productions are 
more abundant and valuable, than those of most otlier countries of 
Europe. 

1357. The climate in the North is cold; in the middle regions, 
it is mild; and in the South, it is so warm as to allow the cultiva¬ 
tion of olives, figs, and oranges. 

XX. In what part of France are its mountains? Has it many rivers ? 
What rivers are in the northern part, and where does each rise and empty 1 
Those of the southern part ? Oi the eastern part ? 

Xn. 1358. The French ai*e naturally intelligent and industrious ; 
and their literary and scientific institutions, their libraries and mu¬ 
seums, and their learned men, are celebrated throughout Europe. 

1359. The people are not generally well taught, and those of the 
South of France are extremely ignorant. 

1360. Jigj-iculturc is better conducted than in most countries of Eu¬ 
rope ; and none excel the French in the beauty of their manufac¬ 
tures. Their commerce is extensive, both by foreign and French ships. 

1361. The Island of Corsica belongs to France. is mountainous 
and unproductive. The people have little instruction ; and the moun¬ 
taineers are almost savages. 

1362. France hKS foreign colonies in Algiers, Guiana, the West 
Indies, the Island of Bourbon, in Pondicherry in India, and in some 
of the islands of Oceanica. 

III. What large city lies on the Rhine? What cities on the Rhone ? What 
seaports on the Mediterranean Sea? Where is Montpelier? What important 
seaport lias on the Garonne River? What ports on the Bayof Biscay ? What on 
the Engli.^h Channel ? VV^here is Calais? What cities in the North ? In the in¬ 
terior? What cities on the River Seine and its branche.s? What seaport at its 
mouth ? What cities on the Loire and its hranche.s? 

In what regions do we find France on the Chart of Climates? What produc¬ 
tions .should we expect? What is its government? (See Moral Chart.) Its re¬ 
ligion ? Its .state of civilization ? 

* SWITZERLAND. 

I. 1363. Switzerland is traversed by the Alps. It is 
celebrated for the grandeur of its mountains, and the beauty 
of its valleys, lakes, streams, and waterfalls; and for the vast 
fields of ice and snow, from which their waters descend. 









278 


EUROPE. 



(153) Mountain Village in Sioitzerland. 


Za Pol. 71/. of Enr. and Gcr. — How is SAvitzerhind bounded ? Where 
is Berne, which is generally considerovl the capital ? For what is it re¬ 
markable ? (IT 13()3.) 

IS. 3364. The .wufhern pari of Switzerland lies among the 
ranges of tlie Alps, and consists of lofty mountains and deep 
valleys, with fields of ice more than 3000 square miles in extent. 

13G5. The hi^fwr parts of the mountains are desert with cold. 
The. declivities have summer pastures, to which ttie cattle of the 
valleys are driven for a few months in the year. The northern pari 
lies on tlie Swiss Bavarian table land, and lias a rugged, hilly svr- 
face.^ but the soil is productive in this region, especially in the 
valle5'-s. 

1366. The climate varies ivith the elevation, but is generally, cold 
and variable. IVie ha7W€sts are uncertain; and Sw itzerland does 
not produce enough for the subsistence of the people. 

Some of the valleys, and the southern declivities of the mountains, are so 
warm that the wine grape and delicate fruits are abundant. 

II. What rivers rise in Switzerland ? 'What mountains cover a lar^e 
part of it ? What lakes has it ? 

m. 1367. Siritzerland is divided into 22 cantons, difTcring in lan¬ 
guage, religion, and constitution, but united in one federal republic, 
governed by a diet or congress. 

1368. The people of the several cantons differ materially in their 

character; but they are generally more intelligeiU, and better taught, 
than the surrounding nations. ° 

1369. They are generally indmstrious and skilful in agriculture, and 
in some branches of manufacture ; and many emigrate to foreign 
countries to engage in manufactures or commerce. 

1370. Switzerland is entirely an inland country, and its commerce 
is only with tlie neighboring countries, or, through their seaports, with 










GKUMANi'. 


279 


foreign countries. The Swiss are obliged to import grain and other 
provisions ; but they export a considerable amount of manufactures, 
even to America. 

III. What towns do you find besides the capital of Switzerland 1 In what 
region on the Chart of Climates is Switzerland ? {It is colder than the lowlands on 
account of its elevation.) What is its government, religion, and civilization ? 


GERMANY, 

OR, THE GERMANIC COxNFEDERATION. 

I. 1371. IVic northern declivity of the Alps is inhabited 
chiefly by Germans, who speak the same language, and 
their country is therefore called Germany. It extends from 
the Baltic Sea on the North to the Rhine on the South, and 
from the borders of Russia, Bohemia, and Hungary, on the 
East, to the borders of France, Belgium, and Holland, on 
the West. 

Germany is divided into thirty-nine distinct states, which 
are united in the Germanic Confederation. Austria and 
Prussia, which are the largest states, embrace some coun¬ 
tries not belonging to Germany. 

I, Q. and Ex. — 1371. In what part of Europe does Germany lie? 
How is it bounded, or liow far does it extend in each direction ? 

IX. 1372. Germany occupies the centre of Europe, and is chiefly 
an inland country, with only a few unimportant seaports on the 
Baltic and Adriatic Seas. But it has sixty rivers, and its large 
streams open the way from the ocean to the heart of Europe. 

1373. It is traversed nearly in the middle, or about latitude 50°, by 
the River Mayne, which flows into the Rhine; and may he divided 
into Germany South of the Mayne, and North of the Mayne. 

1374. Southern Germany lies on tlie first and second terraces of 
the xYIps, and is generally rugged, elevated, and cold. JVorthern 
Germany — North of the Mayne —lies on the third terrace of the 
Alps, and the German lowland. It is more level, and in many parts 
more fertile. The climate varies with the elevation. 

1375. The valleys of the Rhine and its branches are among the 
most fertile regions; and they have a climate so mild, that vine¬ 
yards are abundant Some parts of the second terrace are also very 
fertile; and its mountains are rich in mines. 

II, Al. of Eur. and Ger. — What sea bounds Germany on the North? 
What rivers empty into it ? What sea on the N-W. ? What streams flow 
into the North Sea ? What river which rises in Germany flows into the 
Black Sea ? What mountains are there in Northern Germany ? In South- 

''ern Germany ? Which part of Germany consists chiefly of highlands ? 
Which of lowlands ? What river runs from East to West, nearly through 
the middle of Germany ? (TT 1373.1 



280 


EUIIOPE. 


m, i:37(i. The Gcrjnans are distinguished for their industry and 
perseverance ; and, in most states, are among tlie best instructed peo¬ 
ple of Europe. 

1377. They arc generally skilful in agriculture, and many districts 
export grain. Manufacturer are numerous and increasing ; and com¬ 
merce is extensive, but chiefly overland, or through the seaports of 
the surrounding countries. 

137ri. Germany is chief y distinguished for its literary institutions, 
libraries, museums, and the number of its learned men; and the 
northern states, especially, excel all other countries of Europe in 
these respects. 


The following list contains the names of the independent states belonging 
to the German Confederation, in their geographical order, presenting the 
smaller states in connection with those in which they are enclosed. Lux¬ 
emburg belongs to Holland, and Holstein and Lauenburg to Denmark. 

E. indicates an empire ; K., a kingdom; D., a duchy; P., a principality ; 
and F. C., a free city. The initial letters following the names of some of 
the smaller states refer to the map. 


SOUTHERN STATES. 

E. OF Austria. 

Austria encloses 
P. of Liclitensteinj (Ln.) 

K. OF Bavaria, 

K. OF WURTEMBERG. 

JVurtemberg encloses 
P. nohenzo!!ern Ilcchingen, (//. IL) 
P. Hohenzollern Sigmaringen,(7/.S.) 
D. OF Baden. 


CENTRAIi STATES. 


K. OF Saxony. 
Saxon Duchies. 


D. of Saxe Coburg, fC.) ^ . . 

D. of Saxe Gotha, (G.) j 
D. of Sa.xe Meiningen, (S. M.) 
D. of Saxe Weimar, (S. fV.) 

D. of Saxe Altenburg. 

The Saxon Duchies enclose 


P. Schwartzburg Rudolstadt, (S. R.) 
P. of Reuse Greitz, (R. O.) 

P. of Reuss Lobenstein, {R. L.) 
Hessian Duchies. 


D. of Hesse Cassel, (C.) 

D. of Hesse Darmstadt, (£).) 
D. of Hesse Horaburg, {H.) 


The Hessian D^uchies enclose 
F. C. Frankfort on Mayne, (F.) 

D. OF Nassau. 

D. OF Luxemburg. 

NORTHER.N STA’J'ES. 

K. OF Prussia. 

Prussia encloses 

P. of Lippe Detmold, /,, . 

P. of Sciiaumberg Lippe, i ^ 

P. of Waldeck, i IV.) 

P. of Schwartzburg Sondershau- 
sen, (S. S.) 

P. of Anhalt De.ssau, ) 

P. of .Anhalt Bernberg, > {An.) 

P. of Anhalt Cothen, ) ^ 

K. OF Hanover. 

Hanover encloses 
D. of Brunswick, 

D. of Oldenburg, 

F. C. Bremen, {B.) 

D. OF Holstein and Lauenburg, (Z.) 
Holstein encloses 
F. C. Lubeck, (Lu.) 

F. C. Hamburg, (//.) 

D. OF Mecklenburg Schwerin, (Schw.) 
D. of Mecklenburg Strelitz, (Str.) 


SOUTHERN STATES OF GERMANY. 

I. 31. of Ger. — What four large states of Germany lie South of the 
River Mayne, or in Southern Germany ? Which of these is in the valley 
of the Rhine ? Which lies on the Mayne in part ? Which on the Danube 
and its branches 1 On what natural divisions of the central highland do 
Wurtemberg and Bavaria lie 1 (IT 1374.) 































282 


EUROPE. 


AUSTRIA. 



(J55) People of different A'^ations in the Austrian hmpire 


I, 1379. Austria is the largest and most powerful state 
of Germaiiy ; but a large part of its dominions are not in 
Germany. It cotnprises several nations, dilforing in appear¬ 
ance, dress, language, religion, and forms of government; 
and in almost every state of civilization. 

X. M. of E. — How is Austria bounded? What is the capital, and 
wliere ? What divisions or countries do you find in Austria ? For what is 
it remarkable ? (IT 1379.) 

IS. 1380. A lars;e part of Austria lies on the terraces, and in 
the valleys of the Danube; but Bohemia, Transylvania, and Lom¬ 
bardy, are distinct basms ; and Tyrolese Switzerland and other 
provinces lie amonp; the Alps. Austria thus includes highlands, 
terraces, and lowlands, of every degree of elevation. 

1381. Hence this empire has every variety of surface and soil, 
from the rugged mountains and table lands, and the barren steppes, 
to fertile valleys and rich lowlands. About one half of the empire 
consists of waste lands and forests. 

1382. I^he climate varies, also, from the heat of Italy to the cold 
of the Alps ; and Austria yields the productions of the Cold, Tem¬ 
perate, and Warm Regions, in different parts. 

133.3. It abounds in rich mines of every kind; but tliey are not 
generally worked. The most remarkable are the vast salt mines of 
Wielitzka, near Cracow, which were formerly in Poland. 

SIX. 1384. Austria consists of the German duchy of Aiistria, the 
separate states of Hung-arj', Bohemia, Transylvania, Polish Gallicia, 
and Italian Lombardy. It also comprises Croatia, and other prov 











BAVARlAj WURTEMBERG, AND BADEN. 283 

inces bordering on Turkey, whose inhabitants are generally soldiers — 
always armed and scarcely civilized. 

Idrio. The. people of Austria., therefore, have every variety of char¬ 
acter ; and some are even barbarous, or savage. Those who are civil¬ 
ized are generally instructed in schools, industrious, and remarkably 
free from crimes. 

138(3. Agricullurc is in a low state; manufactures are inferior in 
quality, but sulHcient for the use of the empire. 

1387. Austria has a very small extent of sea-coast., and a limited 
commerce, and has no foreign coionics. But its large army renders it 
one of the most powerful states of Europe. 

21Ie JH. of E. — What seaports has Austria, and vvliere 1 What town on 
the Danube above Vienna i Wliat towns below Vienna.’ What cities North of 
the Danube in Bohemia.’ What river of the Baltic rises in Austria.’ What city 
is on it.’ What cities in the eastern part of the empire .’ What in the southern 
part ? 

Chart of Climates. — In what regions do you find Austria .’ What productions 
nia^/you e.vpect.’ Will the climate and productions vary in different parts for 
any particular rea.son .’ (See IT 1381, 1382.; 

Moral Chart. — What is the government of Austria.’ The prevailing religion.’ 
The general state of civilization.’ 


BAVARIA, WURTExMBERG, AND BADEN. 

I. 1388. Bavaria, 'Wiirtemherg, and Baden lie be¬ 
tween the Rhine on the South and West, the Mayne on 
the North, and the mountains of Austria on the East. 

M. of Ger. — How is Baden bounded? Wurtcmberg? Bavaria? 
What is the capital of each ? 

12 . 1389. Baden lies in the valley of the Rhine, and has a fertile 
soil and a mild climate. The northern parts of Wurtemberg and 
Bavaria, which lie in the valleys of the Rivers Mayne and Neckar, 
have the same character; and all these valleys produce the wine 
grape. 

1390. The southern parts of JVurtemberg and Bavaria lie on the 
upper terraces of the Alps, and are rugged and not productive. 

1391. The climate and productions vary more witli the difference 
of elevation than witli the latitude; and the higher regions are as 
cold as Northern Germany. 

1392. The mountains of these countries contain valuable mines; 
and the lumber of theiris also an article of trade. 

Ila In what part of Southern Germany is Baden ? Bavaria ? Wurtem 
berg ! What rivers do you find in each ? Which countries border on 
Switzerland and the Rhine ? Which lie on the River Mayne ? 

I2I. 1393. The people of all these countries are taught in schools, 
and are not wanting in industry. Those of Wurtemberg are superior 
to their neighbors in intelligence and industry. 

1394. These countries are chiefly agricultural, but not in, the best 
state cultivation. Some branches of manufacture are extensive and 
important. Commerce in these articles is considerable; and most civ 



284 


EUROPE. 


ilized countries import the toys, baskets, and wood-work of these 
regions. 

IIX. What cities are there in each of these countries besides the capital? 
What places have universities ? 

Moral Chart. — What is the government, religion, and state of civilization of 
Bavaria? Of Wurtemberg? Of Baden? 

CENTRAL STATES OF GERMANY. 

I, 1395. Between the River Mayne on the South, and 
Prussia and Hanover on the North, are a number of small 
states, which may be called the Central States of Germany. 

M. of Ger. — What states of Germany lie North of the River Mayne 
and the Erz-ge-bir-ge, or Ore Mountains, extending to Prussia? Is the 
kingdom of Saxony in the eastern or western part of this region ? In what 
part of it are the Hesses, or Hessian States, and Nassau ? Where are the 
Saxes, or Saxon States ? What two countries surround the Central States 
on the North and West ? What four countries are on the southern borders 
of the Central States ? 

SAXONY AND TPIE SAXON STATES, 

Including Saxe Weimar, Saxe Gotha, Meiningen, Alten- 
hurg, and Coburg. 

22. 139(>. The Saxon States lie on the third terrace of tlie Alps, 
which forms the declivity from the highlands to the lowlands. 

1397. The surface, soil, and elevation, of these states, are very 
various. 

1398. The kingdom of Saxony has a produc.tive soil in many 
parts, but ii^ peculiarly rich in mines. 'The smaller Saxon States 
are very fertile, both in pastures and cultivated fields. 

XE, 31. of Get. — How is the kingdom of Saxony bounded ? What la 
its capital ? What cities do you find in the small Saxon States ? What 
mountains ai-e there in Saxony ? What river passes through it ? 

222. 1 399. The jyeoplc of these states are well taught and industri¬ 
ous ; and their literary institutions and learned men hold a high rank 
in Europe. 

1400. Agriculture is well conducted. Manufactures are consider¬ 
able, and skilfully made ; and the inland, commerce is important. 

1401. The mines of the kingdom of Saxony are verj'^ ancient and 
rich ; and the miners are noted for their skill. 

III. What cities do you find besides the capitals ^ 

HESSIAN STATES. 

Hesse Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel, and Hesse Homburg. 

32. 1402. The Hessian States lie on a dry and rugged table 
land, and are much less productive than the Saxon States ; but the 
valleys of the streams are fertile, especially that of the Mayne. 


PRUSSIA. 


285 


m. 1403. The people are not so well taught, nor so industrious, 
as tlie Germans around them. Jlgriculture is not generally well con¬ 
ducted ; manufactures are few ; and the laboring classes are very 
poor. 

1404. Frankfort is a free city, lying on the River Mayne, within 
the boundaries of Hesse Darmstadt. It is celebrated as a rich com¬ 
mercial place, and the capital of the German Confederation. 

ZX2. M. of Ger. — How are the Hessian States bounded ? What cities 
do you find 1 W here is Frankfort ? 

NASSAU. 

^3, 3405. The Ducky of jYassau is a mountainous and beautiful 
region, lying Nortli of the River Mayne between the Hessian 
States and tlie Rhine. It is remarkable for its numerous mineral 
springs. 

Z2!n Where is the Duchy of Nassau ? How is it bounded ? 

NORTHERN STATES OF GERMANY. 

of Ger. — What states of Gernaany lie North of the Saxon and 
Hess! in States ? Whicli is the largest of these ? Which is next in size 'I 
W!nt two duchies are almost surrounded by Hanover? What two duchies 
lie N Tt’; of the River Elbe ? 


PRUSSIA. 



J, Prussia is the second state in Germany in ex¬ 

tent uiid power. It is distinguished for its literary insti¬ 
tutions ; and also for its arsenals and army, which are supe¬ 
rior to most others in Europe. 

14!f7. The greater part of Prussia lies between the 
lialtic Sea and the mountains of Bohemia: but this king. 
























286 


EUROPE. 


dom also possesses extensive provinces on the Rhine, sep¬ 
arated from the rest by the kingdom of Hanover. 

Za Pol. M. P. — How is the eastern part of Prussia bounded? How 
is the western portion of Prussia bounded, which lies on the Rhine ? What 
states lie between these two portions of Prussia ? What is the capital of 
Prussia, and in what part of it ? For what is Prussia remarkable ? (T1 1406.) 
Where does the greater part of it lie ? (tT 1407.) What does it possess 
besides ? 

IX. 1408. Prussia lies chi^y on the northern lowland of Ger¬ 
many, and its surface is very level. It abounds in sandy plains and 
marshes, and the soil is not generally fertile. The climate is cold, 
and not favorable to cultivation; but the crops of the Temperate 
Regions are cultivated. 

ZIb Do you find mountains in Prussia? \V’’hat rivers pass through 
the eastern part ? What are there in the western part? What sea does it 
touch upon ? 

III. 1409. The people of Prussia are well taught and industrious, 
except in the Polish provinces; and they cultivate the Land so well as 
to supply their own wants. 

1410. Prussia has some manufactures of importance; and its nu¬ 
merous rivers and canals give it extensive inland commerce. But its 
only seaports are on the Baltic Sea, with shallow harbors; and there¬ 
fore it has little foreign commerce. 

ZZZb What seaports has Prussia.’ On what sea do they lie? Whaft city on 
the River Elbe? What cities in the eastern part of the kingdom ? What city on 
tlie Rhine? 

In what regton, as to clin)ate, is Prussia? (Sec Chart of Climates.) What is its 
government, prevailing religion, and state of civilization? (See Moral Chart) 

HANOVER, 

AND THE DUCHIES OF OLDENBURG, BRUNSWICK, HOLSTEIN, 
AND MECKLENBURG. 

I. 1411. Hanover was formerly possessed by the king 
of Great Britain, but is now an independent kingdom, gov¬ 
erned by one of the British royal family. 

Za M. of Ger. — How is Hanover bounded ? What duchy separates the 
northern and southern parts of Hanover ? How is Brunswick bounded ? 
How is the Duchy of Oldenburg bounded ? What is the capital of Han¬ 
over ? Of Brunswick ? Of Oldenburg ? What rivers run through Han¬ 
over ? Where is the free city of Bremen ? Where is Embden ? 

n. 1412. Hanover, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Holstein, and Meck¬ 
lenburg lie in the eastern part of the German lowland. They are 
level, and generally sandy, barren countries. In some parts tliey 
are covered with marshes ; and in others, with keaihs, which afford 
little food, except for the bees that feed on their flowers, and fur¬ 
nish large quantities of honey. 


Jil'AIX. 


2ST 


1413. The soil of tlie river valleys is fertile ; but agriculture is 
in a low state, and the harvests are not sufficient for the Avants of 
tlie people. 

ZII. 1114. The people B,re not well taught or skilful in the arts; 
and manufaeXures are few and unimportant. Hanover is distin¬ 
guished for its university at Gottingen. 

TZZ. What cities in Hanover besides the capital ^ 

1415. Bremen is a free city of considerable trade and wealth, lying 
with:n the bounds of Hanover. The commerce of Hanover and the 
neighitoring duchies is carried on chieflv' throuerh Bremen and Ham- 

CO JO 

burg. ^ ^ 

141*5. The Dcciiies of Holstein and Lunenburg, North of the 
Elbe, belong to Denmark. 

SOUTHERN PENINSULAS OF EUROPE. 

Ij Pol. 31. E. — What three peninsulas are there in the South of 
Europe 1 Wdiat states are there in the Spanish peninsula 1 ^Vhat in the 
Italian 1 In the Grecian ? 

SPAIN. 



(157) Mountain Scenery in Spain, 


I. 1417. Spain is a country of mountains and table 
lands, a large part of which is from 1000 to 2000 feet 
above the level of the sea. It abounds in wild and sublime 
scenery. 

I, Pol. M. E. — How is Spain bounded'? What mountains bound it on 
th*' North ’ What i.s its capital ? For what is it remarkable ? (f 1417.) 

l.'l 














288 


EUROPE. 


11. 1418. The central portion of Spain is occupied by the table 
land of Castile, on which Madrid lies, extending’ from the River 
Ebro to the Sierra Nevada. The followin;g profile shoAvs the gen¬ 
eral surface of this peninsula from Nortli-West to South-East 



(158) Profile of Spain from (^omnna to Vakncia. 


1419. T'he surface of the table land is irregular, Avithout ybr<..<?f5, 
and chief y used as pasture for the immense tlocks of merino sheep 
Avhich are alloAved to Avander over it. 

1420. The soil is generally productive ; but only a small portion 
is cultivated, and that very poorly. 

1421. The loiolands of the eastern coast, and of tie Rivers Ebro 
and Guadalquivir, are very fertile, and rich in all productions of 
the Wann Regions. 

1422. The climate di’jq mid intensely hot in summer; but the 
ivinters on the table land are very cold. 

What chains of mountains cross tlie central table land of Spain ? 
What river valleys are separated by the Castilian Mts. ? What by the 
other ranges? Which is the most southern range of incuntains in Spain ? 
What rivers empty into the Atlantic Ocean ? What mto the Mediterra¬ 
nean Sea ? 


1423. The mountains of Spain abound in A'aluable mines; 
and this coujitrtj was Once among the richest in Europe in productions 
and manufactures. 

1424. The people are now generally destitute of schools, and of tlie 
Bible. They arc ignorant and indolent; and agriculture and manu¬ 
factures are inti very Ioav state. 

1425. A fcAv seaports have considerable cumvicrce ; but it is chiefly 
carried on by foreigners. 

1426. Spain formrrly possessed Mexico, and the greater part of 
South America; but these are noAV independent states, and the only 
colonies belonging to Spain are the Islands of Cuba and Porto Rico 
in the West Indies, the. Canaries on the coast of Africa, and the Phi¬ 
lippine Islands in the East Indies. 

1427. Andorka is a little republic of 15,000 inhabitants, situated 
in a valley on the Spanish decli\'ity of the Pyrenees. 

ITI, What seafiorts are there on the southern coasts of Spain Wliat cities 
on the southern rivers.? What seaports on the eastern coast.? What on the 
northern coast? What cities on the River Ebro.? On the Douro.? On the 
Tagus.? 

In what region do you find Spain and Portugal on the Chart of Climates.? What 
is the government of Spain .? {Sec Moral Chart.) The religion? The state of 
civilization.? 




PORTUGAL. -ITALY. 


289 


PORTUGAL. 

l. 1428. The Portuguese have made little improvemeiii 
in arts, manufactures, or even in agriculture; and they even 
tread out their grain with oxen, as was done in ancient 
times. 

3a Pol. M. E. — How is Portugal bounded ? What is its capitiil ? For 
what is it remarkable ? (IT 1428.) 

SI. 1429. Portugal is one of the smallest and least important 
kingdoms of Europe. 

1430. It lies on the western terrace of the table land of Spain, 
gradj^ly descending to the sea. The surface is irregular; but a 
lafpppart of it has a fertile soil. 

1431. The climate is dry, and very hot in summer. The tuiniers 
are mild in tlie lowlands, but cold on the highlands. 

II a What rivers pass through Portugal ? 

m, 1432. Fortuiral yields all the productions of the Warm Re¬ 
gions, but t/te are generally more ignorant and indolent than 

those of Spain ; agricutturc and munufactitris are neglected; and 
commerce, except the cruel slave trade, is left chiefly to foreigners. 

1433. Portugal has colonies in the Azores, Madeiras, and Cape Verd 
Islands, on tlie eastern and v/estern coast of Africa, at Goa in Hin- 
doostan, and at Macao in China. 

III. What seaports has Portugal be.sides the capital i In what region do you 
find Portugal on the Chart of Climates.^ What is the government, religion, and 
state of civilization, marked on tlie Moral Ch.irt.^ 


ITALY. 



(159) Mt. Vesuvius. 

I. 1434. Italif i.'i celebrated for its ancient volcanoes,— 
Mt. Etna in Sicily, and Mt. Vesuvius, one of whose erup- 
















290 


EUROPE. 


tions buried the Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
near Naples. 

In these buried cities, as well as in Rome, and in other parts of Italy, we 
find the ruins of the temples, palaces, and houses of the ancient Romans, 
who inhabited this country. Li Pompeii, tools, furniture, and even bread, 
grain, and eggs, were found in the houses, which were buried with them, 
A. D. 79. 


1435. Italy is divided into the Kingdom of Naples, in the 
South; the Roman States, and the Duchies of Tuscany, 
» Parma, and Modena, in the middle; and the Kingdom of Sar¬ 
dinia, and the Austrian Province of Lombardy, in the North. 


I. Pol. M. of E. and Pol. Chart of the World. — Hov,' is Italy 
ed? For what is it remarkable? (H 1434.) How is it divided? 

What kingdom is there in the South? What is the capital of JNaples ? 
What large island belongs to this kingdom? What kingdom in the JNorth- 
West? What province in the North belonging to Austria ? What is the 
capital of Sardinia? Where is the Island of Sardinia, belonging to this 
king<lom ? What states lie in the middle of Italy ? What is the capital of 
Tuscany ? V/hat of the Roman States ? ( These states are distinctly 

marked on the Chart of Central Europe, on the corner of the 3loral Chart.) 



1436. The Italian peninsula is a long, narrow tongue of 
land, extending South from tlie Alps. It is traversed through its 
whole lengtli by the Apennines, which divide it into two principal 
declivities. 

1437. In the middle of Italy, the Apennines are divided into sev¬ 
eral ranges, as in the following profile, enclosing wild table lands. 

1438. On this account, the s^ir- 
face of Italy is irregular, and in 
many parts rough. The soil of the 
valleys, and many of the lowlands, 
is fertile; and tlie basin of tlie 
River Po is one of the richest 
countries of Europe. 

Describe the ascents and descents of 
the Apennines, and the places on the way, 
in crossing from W. to E. on this profile. 


(160) Profile of the Middle 
Apennines. 


1439. Th£, climate is generally very mild, and Italy yields all the 
productions of tlie Wann Regions. In the neighborhood of the 
Alps, the winters are cold. 

Z£a What is the course of the Apennines from the borders of France to 
Parma ? What is it then ? How many declivities has Italy ? What river 
and basin on the North ? What other 'rivers do you find ? 'Where is Mt. 
Vesuvius? Mt. Etna? Where is Sicily? What small islands near it? 
What volcano among them ? (IT 373.) What other islands of Italy ? 

XXX. 1440. The people of JVaples and the Roman States are ex¬ 
tremely ignorant, indolent, and unskilful in agrictilturc and manufac~ 
tures. 





THE GRECIAN PENINSULA.-TURKEY. 


291 


1441. The people of Northern Italy are better instructed, and are in¬ 
dustrious, skilful in agriculture and manufactures^ and engaged in 
commerce. 

144*2. The Italians are not generally allowed to read the Bible ; and 
they are among the most immoral nations of Europe. 

1443. The Roman States are governed by the Pope, who is the head 
of the Roman Catholic Church ; and the city of Rome contains St. 
Peter’s Church, the largest and most beautiful in the world. 

1444. The islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Elba, and the Lipari Islands, 
belong to Italy ; but the Italians have no foreign colonies. 

1445. Sardinia and Sicily are naturally very fertile islands, but the 
ignorance and rudeness of the people are such, that they do not raise 
enough to supply their own wants. 

144G. Tlie little Republic of San Marino is situated on a moun¬ 
tain in the Roman States, and contains 7000 inhabitants, who have 
maintained their independence for 1000 years. 

IlZa What seaports has Italy on the Gulf of Venice.^ What on the Gulf of 
TarentoWhat on the south-western coast.? What cities in the interior? 
VV*hat are the principal cities of Lombardy? What cities are there in Sicily? 
In Sardinia? In what region does Italy lie? (See Chart of Climates.) What 
productions may you expect to find there? What is the government, religion, 
and state of civilization, of each country of Italy? (See Central Europe on the 
Moral Chart.) 

THE GRECIAN PENINSULA. 

I. 1447. The Grecian peninsula is crossed in various 
directions by chains of mountains, which give it a rugged 
surface. They also divide it into numerous table lands and 
basins, in which the ancient Grecian States were situated. 

1448. The southern extremity of the Grecian peninsula 
is occupied by the modern kingdom of Greece; the centre 
and eastern parts by Turkey; and a part of the western 
coast by Austrian Dalmatia and Monte Negro. 

!■ Phijs. and Pol. M. E. — How is the Grecian peninsula bounded? 
What country is there at the South 1 What in the centre ? What on the 
western coast? 

XX. Wliat mountains cross it from East to West on the North ? What 
mountains run from North to South ? What divisions do they form ? What 
smill peninsula forms the southern extremity of the large peninsula ? 
Wliat large island near the coast? What gulf North of it? What two 
gulfs nearly separate the Morea from the main land ? What large island 
on the eastern coast of Greece ? What small islands on the western coast ? 
What small islands in the Algean Sea ? What large island at its entrance ? 

In what region on the Chart of Climates is the Grecian peninsula ? What 
productions may we expect ? — 


TURKEY. 

I, 1449. Turkey is governed by an absolute monarch, 
called the Sultan. When he passes through the streets, 



292 


EUROPE. 


all his subjects fall upon their faces before him, as a mark 
of reverence. 



(IGl) Reverence paid to the Sidtan. 

!■ Pol. M. E. — What parts of the Grecian peninsula are occupied by 
Turkey in Europe 1 How is Turkey bounded ? ( Ttirkey extends on the 

South to the Gtdfs of Vola and Arta, lohich divide it from Ch-eece.) What 
is the capital, and where 1 What is the Sultan, and how is he treated ? 
(IT 1449.) 

H. 1450. Turkey has every variety of surface., from the rich 
plains of Thessaly and the fertile valleys of Rumelia and the Dan¬ 
ube, to the rugged, mountainous regions of the North-West 

On the North-East, on the Danube, are the fertile lowlands of TVollachia 
and Moldavia; and South of these, the basin of Rumelia or Thrace, the 
warmest, richest, and most beautiful part of the peninsula. On the North- 
West are the mountainous provinces of Servia and Bosnia, bordered on the 
South by the ruep^ed highlands of Macedonia and Albania. 

The plains of Thessaly form the passage from Macedonia to Greece, and 
are celebrated for their rich pastures and numerous fields of battle. 

1451. The soil of Turkey is very various, but is generally fertile. 
The climate is generally wann and delightful; and Turkey yields 
all the productions of tlie Warm Regions. 

II. What lowlands lie on the Danube in Turkey ? What mountains 
cross Turkey from North to South ? What basin lies between the Black 
Sea and the Rhodope Mts., or Despoto Dag? What river occupies this 
basin ? What highland West of these mountains 1 What plain South of 
Macedonia ? What province East of Mt. Pindus ? 

HI. 1452- The people of Tirkey are chiefly Mahometans, who are 
generally ignorant, indolent, and unskilful in arts and manufactures^ 
and this is one of the poorest countries of Europe. 

1453. The people of some provinces, and the Greeks and Arme¬ 
nians, who are scattered through the empire, are Christians ; but they 
are generally little acquainted with the Bible. 











GREECE. 293 

1454. Turkey abounds in fine harbors, and has important commerce , 
but it is carried on chiefly by foreigners 

1455. The Turkish Empire includes Turkey in Asia, and the African 
States, Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt. 

1456. Monte Negro is a mountainous region on tbe western coast, 
between Turkey and Dalmatia, which has always been an independ¬ 
ent republic. It contains 6J,000 inhabitants, who are brave but half- 
barbarous. 

IXI, What cities of Turkey lie on the Danube and its branches, beginning at 
the West? Where is Sophia? What city lies North-West of Constantinople? 
Where is Salonica ? What cities in the southern part of Turkey ? Where is 
Scutari ? 

GREECE. 



(162) Athens. 

I. 14.57. A part of ancient Greece now forms the inde¬ 
pendent Kingdom of Greece, consisting of the peninsula 
of the Morea, the province of Livadia, (between Thessaly 
and the Gulf of Corinth,) the Island of Negropont, and a 
number of small islands in the-Ai^gean Sea. 

1458. This kingdom abounds with the ruins of the tem¬ 
ples and cities of ancient Greece; and the ruins of the 
ancient Athens now remain on the Acropolis, or the hill on 
which a part of the modern city is built. 

I, Pol. M. E. — How is Greece bounded ? Where is Athens, the cap¬ 
ital ? For what is Greece rem.arkable ? (IT 1458.) 

SI. 1459. Greece is divided, by numerous arms of the sea and 
ranges of mountains, into the small portions occupied by its an¬ 
cient states. 

















294 


EiiiiorE. 


1460. The surface is rugged, and the islands are mountainous. 
Some portions have a fertile soil; but the greater part of it is un¬ 
cultivated. 

1461. The climate is mild and delightful; and Greece yields all 
the productions of the Warm Regions, 

zzx. 1462. The Greeks are Christians, but are little acquainted 
with the Bible. They are intelligent, but ignorant and unskilful in 
agriculture and manufactures. U'hey have now established schools 
and colleges., and are improving. 

1463. Greece abounds in fine harbors ; and the Greeks are superior 
to any people of the Mediterranean in navigation and foreign com¬ 
merce. 

IONIAN ISLES. 

I. 1464. The Ionian Isles, on the western coast of 
Greece, form an independent state, under a British Gov¬ 
ernor, who resides at Corfu. 

X. M. of E. — Where are the Ionian Islands? Which are the four 
largest ? What do they form I (IT 1464.) 

IZ. 1465. The surface of these islands is very mountainous. 
They resemble Greece in their soil and climate; and grapes,^ 
olives, and currants, are their principal productions. 

- ZZZ. CITIES OF EUROPE. 

1466. The cities of Europe far surpass those of America, in number, pop¬ 
ulation, and magnificence. They are superior to any in the world in their 
universities, hospitals, museums, and other public institutions ; in the splen¬ 
dor and size of their chtuches and public buildings j and in the extent of 
their manufactures and commerce. 

1467. In the cities on the continent of Europe, the streets are usually nar¬ 
row, crooked, and filthy. They are seldom furnished with sidewalks, and 
foot passengers are exposed to constant danger in the crowd of carriages. 

1468. The houses are generally of stone or brick j but in many of the towns- 
of Denm.irk, Norway, Sweden, and Russia, they are built of timber. They 
are usually high, often from five to ten stories, in the large cities. They are- 
not uniform in their appearance, and magnificent palaces are frequently 
surrounded with wretched huts. 

1469. The cities of Europe are much more crowded with houses and in¬ 
habitants than those of tlie United States. In the more populous countries, 
villages like those of America are rarely seen ; but every collection of 
houses appears bke a portion of a large city. A great number of the cities 
and towns are surrounded with walls, and entered only by gates. 

1470. Most cities in the middle countries of Europe have their streets 
lighted at night, and many of them very brilliantly, with gas-lights 5 so that 
it is easy and safe to traverse them at all hours. 

1471. In the cities of the South of Europe, as in other Roman Catholic 
countries, pictures or images of saints are placed at the corners of the 
streets. Passengers frequently stop to offer their devotions before them, 
and lamps burn before them at night, which, in some places, are the only 
lights in the streets. These cities are also remarkable for the great number 
of their churches and chapels, and for the costly paintings, statues, and orna¬ 
ments which these contain. 


CITIES OF EUROPE. 


295 


1472. The cities of Southern Europe are ustudly furnished with water by 
aqueducts; and public fountains are erected in the streets and public 
squares, which add to their beauty, and produce a refreshing coolness in 
the summer. 

1473. Most of the large cities are seaports, or connected with the sea. 
The capital is usually distinguished as the residence of the sovereign. 

1474. London, Petris, Petersburg, Moscow, Vienna, Berlin, Amsterdam, 
Dublin, Rome, Florence, and Dresden, are situated on rivers, which divide 
them into two portions, connected by bridges. Rome, Madrid, Lisbon, and 
Edinburgh, are each built on several hills, which gives them a picturesque 
appearance. Naples, and most of the other cities lying on the Mediterra¬ 
nean, are situated on declivities, and the streets rise lirom the shore, like 
the seats of an amphitheatre. 

1475. London is the first city in the civilized world, in population, com¬ 
merce, and wealth. It also includes Westminster, the residence of the royal 
family and court, and Southwark, on the South side of the Thames. The 
streets are generally well paved, and furnished with good sidewalks. It is 
distinguished for the number of its literary and charitable institutions. 

1476. Paris is the second city of Europe in population. It holds the 
first rank in the beauty of its public gardens, fountains, monuments, and 
palaces, and in the extent and value of its libraries and literary institutions. 
It is especially distinguished for the gayety and dissipation of the people, 
and the variety of its public amusements. 

1477. Constantinople presents a magnificent appearance from the sea, in 
the assemblage of mosques, towers, and palaces, mingled with beautiful 
trees. But the streets are narrow, and the whole aspect within the city is 
gloomy and disagreeable. 

1478. St. Petersburg is one of the most magnificent cities in Europe, and 
the seat of extensive commerce. It is built on a spot which, 100 years ago, 
was almost a marsh. 

1479. Moscow, the ancient capital of Russia, was burned in the war of 
1812, but is now in a great measure rebuilt. It presents a singular mixture 
of Asiatic huts, and temples, and mosques, with European palaces and 
churches. 

1480. Vienna, the former capital of Germany, is now the chief city of the 
Austrian empire. It is the resort of merchants from the various nations of 
Fyarope and Asia, and is distinguished for the beauty of its environs, and 
the luxury and dissipation of the nobility. 

1481. Berlm, the residence of the king of Prussia, is a fine, well-built 
city, situated on both sides of the River Spree, a small branch of the Elbe. 
It is'distinguished for its splendid public buildings, its university, library, 
museum, and schools, and its manufactures of porcelain and iron. 

1482. Naples is situated in the midst of a fine amphitheatre of hills. On 
one side is Mount Vesuvius; and a bay spreads before it, ornamented with 
fertile islands, which is scarcely equalled in beauty by any in the world. 

1483. Madrid is situated half a mile above the level of the sea, and in 
the climate of highlands. It is only important as the residence of the king 

and royal family. -c , u 

1484. Lisbon, at a distance, presents a magnificent appearance. It has a 
fine body of water before it, and beautiful cultivated hills in the rear. But 
the streets are irregular and filthy, and the houses are neither elegant nor 

^^l^b^^^Amsterdam is built on oaken piles, in a marshy spot, and, like most 
of the cities of Holland, is intersected by a great number of canals passing 

throutjh its principal streets. . . , „ ♦ a 

1486 Dublin is the second city of the British Isles. It presents a grand 
appearance from the sea; and few cities have a greater proportion of fine 
and useful buildings. 13 * 




296 


EUROPE. 


1487. Edinburgh is not a place of commerce or of manufactures j but it 
is distinguished for its literary institutions and its learned men. 

1488. Rome was once the capital of the known world ; but it is now de¬ 
caying in population and wealth. A large part of it is laid out in fields and 
gardens, or covered with the ruins of the ancient city. Its churches are 
very splendid; and St. Peter’s is the grandest in the world. 

1489. Venice is a beautiful city, remarkable for its situation on islands. 
The people pass from one part to another in boats, on the canals, and horses 
and carriages are rarely seen. 

1490. Hamburg is the greatest commercial city of Germany. Like the 
cities of Holland, it is intersected by canals. Some of its streets and squares 
are w'ell built and beautiful. 

1491. Copenhagen, situated on the Island of Zealand, is a commercial city 
of considerable wealth and beauty. 

1492. Stockholm has a singular and romantic appearance, from its situa¬ 
tion on a number of rocky islands. 

1493. Florence, the capital of Tuscany, is a beautiful city, situated on both 
sides of the River Arno. I'xiHn is a handsome fortified town, the residence 
of the king of Sardinia. Genoa is a rich commercial city, and the great sea¬ 
port of Sardinia 5 distinguished also as the birthplace of Columbus. Dres¬ 
den is one of the most elegant cities of Europe, distinguished for its manu¬ 
factures of fine porcelain or china ware. 

1494. Geneva, the chief city of Switzerland, has a beautiful situation on 
the lake of the same name. Warsaw, the capital of Poland, is composed 
chiefly of mean, wooden hovels, with only a few fine buildings. Bergen 
has a fine harbor. Christiana is the principal place in Norway, and is ad¬ 
mired for the beauty of its situation. 

1495. Athens was once the most celebrated city in the world for science 
and learning. The Acropolis was built on a rock 240 feet high, where the 
ruins of several beautiful temples still exist. The modern town lies on the 
declivity and plain below, which abounds w'ith olive-trees. Its harbor is 
at the Piraeus, on the Gulf of Egina. 

Exercises on Cities. —Examine the Political Map of Europe, and describe 
the capitals of the first rank. All of the second rank. Of the third. Of 
the fourth. Put down the population of each from the table of cities in the 
Atlas. 

m. TRAVELS ON THE MAP OF EUROPE. 

1496. You must now learn to travel alone. Begin at the British Isles, 
and travel round the coasts of Europe, and go up the rivers of each country 
you pass, mentioning what you remember that is remarkable. 


HIGHLANDS. 


297 


ASIA. 

S. 1497. Asia forms the body of the Eastern Continent, 
as already described, (p. (34, ^ 167, 168.) It is remarkable 
for a belt of table lands, the most extensive, and in some 
parts the loftiest in the world, which stretches across the 
continent from the Mediterranean Sea to China. 

Z. Q«. and Ex. —1497. What does Asia form ? For what is it remark¬ 
able ? Review the description of Asia, (pp. 89, 90,) and give an account of 
its size. (II 258.) Its form. (II 259.) Peninsulas and sea-coast. (H 260,261.) 
— Phys. M. of Asia. — How is Asia bounded ? In what zones does it lie ? 

HIGHLANDS. 

I. 1498. The Asiatic belt of table lands may be divided 
into the eastern or central table land. East of the Belur Tag 
Mountains, and the western table lands, extending westward 
from the eastern plateau to the ^gean Sea. 

1499. The central plateau covers more than one third of 
Asia, which is thus elevated from 4000 to 15,000 feet above 
the level of the sea. It consists chiefly of steppes and deserts, 
with few streams, and is crossed by lofty ranges of mountains. 

The western table lands are only from 2000 to 6000 feet high, fiey 
are, to a great extent, barren or desert j but some portions are very fertile. 

I. Qu. and Ex. — (^ 1498.) How may the table lands of Asia be divided ? 
(H 1499.) Describe the central plateau. The western table lands. —P/tw. 

M. of A. _In what directions do rivers flow from the central table land ? 

How then do its declivities descend 1 (p. 55, H 118, 119.) 

II. 1500. On the North-East, the central plateau forms the mountain 
land of Mandshuria, and extends in bold precipices to the Pacific Ocean; 
but on other sides, it descends by gradual declivities to the plains of China, 
India, and the Sea of Aral, and sends forth numerous large rivers from the 


snows of its mountains. 



II. H. 1500. How does the central plateau terminate on the N.-E. ? How 
on other sides f 











298 


ASIA. 


What are the first mountains you find in going S. from the Arctic Ocean 
through Siberia ? What table land S. of the Altaian Mountains ? What 
chain borders the table land on the South 1 What do you find S. of the 
Himalaya Mountains ? 

1501. The Himalaya Mountains, which border it on the South, are the 
loftiest known on the globe. They have peaks nearly six miles in height, 
and terraces and table lands higher than those of the Andes. 

1502. The Altaian Mountains, which border the table land on the !North, 
are of the second rank. This name is often given to the whole chain^ 
which extends, under various names, from the steppes of the Caspian Sea 
to Beering’s Straits. 

1503. In China, we find the Himalaya Mountains continued in the Sine 
Shan, a lofty range covered with snows and glaciers, which terminates m 
Nanling, or South mountains of this empire. Hie Peling, or North moun¬ 
tains, are also a branch of the central plateau. 

1504. The westeim table lands of Asia extend from the River Indus to the 
iEgean Sea, and may be divided into Iran on the East and Asia Minor on 
the West. 

1505. The table land of /ran lies between the Indus and Euphrates Rivers, 
and resembles the central table land in its steppes, deserts, and dryness, 
but has not one large river. 

1506. Hie mountains on the South and West of Iran are almost impassa¬ 
ble. On the North it is bordered by the Hindoo Koosh, or Paropamisan, 
and the Elburus Mountains, which are easily crossed. 

1507. The high mountain lands of Aderbijan, Koordistan, and Armenia, 
form the passage from the table land of Iran to that of Asia Minor, and 
give rise to the Euphrates and Tigris. 

1508. The table land of Asia Minor covers the peninsula of Asiatic Tur¬ 
key. It is a rugged, barren region, bordered on the South by the Taurus, 
and on the North by a loftier range. 

1509. South of Koordistan is the Syrian-Arabian table land, extend¬ 
ing to the borders of the Indian Ocean, and embracing the greater part of 
Syria and Arabia. 

1510. The western part of the Syrian table land contains the mountains 
of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and the fruitful hills and valleys of Syria and 
Palestine. The eastern and southern parts are deserts, which extend over a 
large part of Arabia. 

1511. The lowlands on the coasts of all these table lands, are, in many 
parts, fertile and populous. 

1512. The peninsulas of Hindoostan and Chin-India have each a distinct 
system of highlands and lowlands, which will be described separately. 

II. Exercises on the Physical Map of Asia. Sea-Coast. — Is the coast 

II. 1501. Describe the Himalaya Mountains. 1502. The Altaian. 1503. The 
Mountains of China. 1504. The western table lands. 1505. Iran. 1506. Its 
What countries form the passage from Iran to Asia Minor ? 
icio Minor. 1509. Where is the Syrian-Arabian table land? 

?fii' western part contain.? The eastern and southern? 

1511. What can you say of the lowlands around these table lands ? 15 lo Of 
the southern peninsula ? ‘ 





DECLIVITIES AND LOWLANDS. 


299 


of Asia much indented by branches of the ocean ? What seas are there 
W. of Asia ? Where is the Isthmus of Suez, which unites it to Africa ? 
What straits lead to the Red Sea ? Where is the Sea of ^Arabia 1 What 
gulfs and bays in the South of Asia 1 What seas on the S. E. 1 What gull’ 
or sea E. of Mandshuria ? 

Inlands. —- What large islands on the coast of Mandshuria ? What on the 
coast of China '! What E. and S. of Chin-India ? What is their general 
form ? What appears to be their surface ? Which is the largest of the 
northern islands ! What large island S. of Hindoostan ? 

Highlands. — What table land do you find in the centre of Asia 1 What 
great table lands W. of it ? How far do the table lands extend on the W. ? 
(IT 1504.) On the E. ? What portions of Asia lie N. of this belt ? What S. ? 

What mountains form the northern border of the central table land ? The 
southern? The western? (H 1408.) What regions bound it on the E. ? 
What mountains cross the central plateau of Asia, and how do they divide 
it ? What desert does it contain ? Describe the course and names of the 
mountains on the JNf. What mountains form the continuation of the 
southern border of the plateau in China ? What mountain ranges pass from 
the table land into China and Mandshuria ? 

What table land lies next W. of the central plateau ? How is the table 
land of Iran bordered on the N., E., S., and S.-W. ? What passes to it on 
the E. and S.-E. ? What desert on this table land ? 

What is the most western portion of the belt of table lands ? By what 
mountain and coasts is it bordered ? 1508. What smaller table lands lie 
between Asia Minor and Iran ? What river valley separates them from the 
Caucasus ? What valley borders them on the S.-W. ? What table land 
extends S. from Koordistan and Asia Minor ? What mountains in Syria ? 
What desert on the table land, and where does it terminate ? VV'^here is 
Mt. Sinai ? 

Declivities, Terraces, and Lowlands. — What forms the northern decliv¬ 
ity of the central table land ? How is the lowland of Siberia bordered on 
the -N., E., S., and W. ? What lowland, connected with this, borders the 

g lateau on the W. ? To what sea does it extend ? What sea does it em- 
race ? What lowland E. of the central plateau ? What peninsulas extend 
from the plateau towards the S. ? 

Lakes and Inland Seas. — Where do you find the two great inland seas 
of Asia ? What lakes on the western table lands ^ What are the principal 
on the central plateau ? Do you find any large lakes in the southern pen¬ 
insulas ? 

Rivers. — What are the great rivers of the northern declivity of Asia, be¬ 
ginning at the E. ? 

Where is the R. Oby ? What two branches has it ? What branches has 
the Yenesei ? Through what lake does one of its branches pass ? What 
three great rivers on the eastern declivity of Asia? What river empties 
into the Chijia Sea? What are the great rivers of Chin-India? What 
rivers in the N. of Hindoostan ? What branches has the Ganges ? What 
rivers empty into the Sea of Aral ? Where do all the rivers which have 
been mentioned rise ? 

What great rivers rise in the western table lands ? What nvers are there 
on the central table land ? What in Iran ? What rivers in the southern 
part of Hindoostan ? Are there any large rivers in Arabia ? What in Asia 
Minor ? Describe the source, course, and mouth, of the rivers already 
named, in the same order. 

I, DECLIVITIES AND LOWLANDS. 

1513. The southern declivity of Asia comprises the Indian 
peninsulas. The eastern declivity contains the rugged 







284 


EUROPE. 


ilized countries import the toys, baskets, and wood-work of these 
regions. 

ZZI. What cities are there in each of these countries besides the capital? 
What places have universities ? 

Moral Chart. — What is the government, religion, and state of civilization of 
Bavaria.^ Of Wurtemberg.^ Of Baden? 

CENTRAL STATES OF GERMANY. 

I. 1395. Between the River Mayne on the South, and 
Prussia and Hanover on the North, are a number of small 
states, which may be called the Central States of Germany. 

Za M. of Ger. — What states of Germany lie North of the River Mayne 
and the Erz-ge-bir-ge, or Ore Mountains, extending to Prussia? Is the 
kingdom of Saxony in the eastern or western part of this region ? In what 
part of it are the Hesses, or Hessian States, and Nassau ? Where are the 
Saxes, or Saxon States ? What two countries surround the Central States 
on the North and West ? What four countries are on the southern borders 
of the Central States ? 

SAXONY AND THE SAXON STATES, 

Including Saxe Weimar, Saxe Gotha, Mciningen, Alien- 
burg, and Coburg. 

Z2. 1393. The Saxon States lie on the tliird terrace of tlie Alps, 
which forms the declivity from the highlands to the lowlands. 

1397. The surface, soil, and elevation, of these states, are very 
various. 

1398. The kingdom of Saxony has a produiitive soil in many 
parts, but i^ peculiarly rich in mines. Tie smaller Saxon Stales 
are very fertile, both in pastures and cultivated fields. 

ZZ. M. of Ger. — How is the kingdom of Saxony bounded ? What is 
its capital ? What cities do you find in the small Saxon States ? VVTat 
mountains ai'e there in Saxony ? What river passes through it ? 

ISI. 1 399. The jfcoplc of these states are well taught and industri¬ 
ous ; and their literary institutions and learned men hold a high rank 
in Europe. 

1400. Jigricuhure is well conducted. Mamifaeturcs are consider¬ 
able, and skilfully made ; and the inland eommerce is important. 

1401. The nxines of the kingdom of Saxony are ver}’^ ancient and 
rich ; and the miners are noted for their skill. 

zzz. What cities do you find besides the capitals •* 

HESSIAN STATES. 

Hesse Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel, and Hesse Homburg. 

3EZ. 1402. The Hessian States lie on a dry and rugged table 
land, and are much less productive than tlie Saxon States ; but the 
valleys of the streams are fertile, especially that of the Mayne. 


PIIUSSIA. 


285 


m. 1403. The people are not so well taught, nor so industrious, 
as the Germans around them. Agriculture is not generally well con¬ 
ducted ; manufactures are few; and the laboring classes arc very 
poor. 

1404. Frankfort is a free city, lying on the River Mayne, within 
the boundaries of Hesse Darmstadt. It is celebrated as a rich com¬ 
mercial place, and the capital of the German Confederation. 

ZX2. M. of Ger. — How are the Hessian States bounded 1 Wliat cities 
do you find ? V^^here is Frankfort ? 

NASSAU. 

1405. TVie Duchy of JVassau is a mountainous and beautiful 
region, lying North of the River Mayne between the Hessian 
States and the Rhine. It is remarkable for its numerous mineral 
springs. 

Where is the Dnchy of Nassau ? How is it bounded ? 

NORTHERN STATES OF GERMANY. 

of Ger. — Wiiat states of Germany lie North of the Saxon and 
Hess! in States ? Whicli is the largest of these ? Which is next in size '! 
What two duchies are almost surrounded by Hanover ? What tivo duchies 
lie N ' rt’i of the River Elbe ? 


PRUSSIA. 



(166) University and Arsenal in Berlin, 

I, 14110. Prussia is the second state in Germany in e:<- 
tcist and power. It is distinguished for its literary insti¬ 
tutions ; and also for its arsenals and army, which are supe¬ 
rior to most others in Europe. 

141)7. 'Pke greater part of Prussia lies between the 
iialtic Sea and the mountains of Bohemia: but this king. 























286 


EUROPE. 


dom also possesses extensive provinces on the Rhine, sep¬ 
arated from the rest by the kingdom of Hanover. 

la Pol. M. E. — How is the eastern part of Prussia bounded? How 
is the western portion of Prussia bounded, which lies on the Rhine ? What 
states lie between these two portions of Prussia ? What is the capital of 
Prussia, and in what part of it ? For what is Prussia remarkable ? (11 1406.) 
Where does the greater part of it lie ? (IT 1407.) What does it possess 
besides ? 

IZ. 1408. Prussia lies chi^y on the northern lowland of Ger¬ 
many, and its surface is very level. It abounds in sandy plains and 
marshes, and the soil is not generally fertile. The clirrude is cold, 
and not favorable to cultivation; but the crops of tlie Temperate 
Regions are cultivated. 

IX< Do you find mountains in Prussia? W’^hat rivers pass through 
the eastern part ? What are there in the western part ? What sea does it 
touch upon ? 

ZII. 1409. The people of Prussia are well taught and industrious, 
except in the Polish provinces; and they cultivate the land so well as 
to supply their own Avants. 

1410. Prussia has some manufactures of importance; and its nu¬ 
merous rivers and canals give it extensive inland commerce. But its 
only seaports are on the Baltic Sea, with shallow harbors; and there¬ 
fore it has little foreign commerce. 

III. What seaports has Prussia ? On what sea do they lie ? Whaft city on 
the River Elbe.^ What cities in the eastern part of the kingdom What city on 
the Rhine 

In what region, as to climate, is Prussia? (See Chart of Climates.) What is its 
government, prevailing religion, and state of civilization? (See Moral Chart) 

HANOVER, 

AND THE DUCHIES OF OLDENKUIIG, BRUNSWICK, HOLSTEIN, 
AND MECKLENBURG. 

I, 1411. Hanover was formerly possessed by the king 
of Great Britain, but is now an independent kingdom, gov¬ 
erned by one of the British royal family. 

I. M. of Ger. — Hoav is Hanover bounded ? What duchy separates the 
northern and southern parts of Hanover ? How is Brunswick bounded ? 
How is the Duchy of Oldenburg bounded ? What is the capital of Han¬ 
over ? Of Brunswick ? Of Oldenburg ? What rivers run through Han¬ 
over ? Where is the free city of Bremen ? Where is Embden ? 

XI. 1412. Hanover, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Holstein, and Meck¬ 
lenburg lie in the eastern part of the German lowland. They are 
level, and generally sandy, barren countries. In some parts tliey 
are covered with marshes; and in others, wdth heaths, which atford 
little food, except for the bees that feed on their flowers, and fur¬ 
nish large quantities of honey. 




2ST 


1413. The soil of the river valleys is fertile ; but agnculture is 
in a low state, and the harvests are not sufficient for the wants of 
the people. 

Ill, 1114. r/tfi people are not well taught or skilful in the arts; 
and munufiir.tures are few and unimportant. Hanover is distin¬ 
guished for its university at Gottingen. 

Wlmt cities in Hanover besides the capital ? 

1415. Bremen is a free city of considerable trade and wealth, lying 
within the bounds of Hanover. The commerce of Hanover and the 
neighboring duchies is carried on chiefly through Bremen and Ham¬ 
burg. ^ 

1416. The Dcciiies of Holstein and Lunknrukg, North of the 
Elbe, belong to Denmark. 

SOUTHERN PENINSULAS OF EUROPE. 

Pol. M. E. — What three peninsulas are there in the South of 
Europe ! What states are there in the Spanish peninsula'/ What in the 
Italian I In the Grecian ? 

SPAIN. 



(167) Mountain Scenery in Spain, 


I, 1417. Spain is a country of mountains and table 
lands, a large part of which is from 1000 to 2000 feet 
above the level of the sea. It abounds in wild and sublime 
scenery. 

I. Pol. M. E. — How is Spain bounded ? What mountains bound it on 
th*' North ' What i.s it.s ennitai ? For what is it remarkable ? (IF 1417.) 

VA 















288 


EUROPE. 


II. 1418. The central portion of Spain is occupied by the table 
land of Castile, on which Madrid lies, extendinij from the River 
Ebro to the Sierra Nevada. The followings profile shows the gen¬ 
eral surface of this peninsula from Nortli-West to South-East 


Sien a cf ,■ p 



(158) Pro'lle of Spain ftom Consmia to \ akncia. 


1419. The surface of the table land is irregular, witliout 

and chief y used as pasture for the immense flocks of merino sheep 
which are allow.,ed to wander over it. 

1420. The soil is generally productive but only a small portion 
is cultivated, and that very poorly. 

1421. The lowlands of the eastern coast, and of tlie Rivers Ebro 
and Guadalquivir, are very fertile, and rich in all productions of 
the Wann Regions. 

1422. 'I'he climate is dr}^, imd intensely hot in summer; but the 
winters on the table land arc very cold. 

II, What chains of mountains cross tlie central table land of Spain ? 
What river valleys are separated by the Castilian ISits.'? Wliat by the 
other ranges? VVhich is the most southern range of mcuntains in Spain ? 
What rivers empty into the Atl antic Ocean ? What into the Mediterra¬ 
nean Sea ? 


‘ffTY _ 1423. The mountains of Spain abound in valuable mines; 
and this country was once among the richest in Europe in productions 
and manufactures. 

1424. The people are now generally destitute of schools, and of the 
Bible. They arc ignorant and indolent; and a'griciiUure and manu¬ 
factures are in ft very low state. 

1425. A few seaports have considerable commerce ; but it is chiefly 
carried on by foreigners. 

1426. Spain forvurly possessed Mexico, and the greater part of 
South America; but these are now independent states, and the only 
colonies belonging to Spain are the Islands of Cuba and Porto Rico 
in the West Indies, the. Canaries on the coast of Africa, and the Phi¬ 
lippine Islands in the East Indies. 

1427. Andorra is a little republic of 15,000 inhabitants, situated 
in a valley on the Spanish declivity of the Pyrenees. 

ITl. What seajKirts are there on the southern coasts of Spain ? What cities 
on the southern rivers ? What seaports on tlie eastern coast ? Wliat on the 
northern coast.’ What cities on the River Ebro.’ On the Douro.’ On the 
Tagus.’ 

In what region do yon find Spain and Portugal on the Chart of Climates.’ What 
is the government of Spain .’ [See Moral Chart.) The religion? The state of 
civilization ? 





PORTUGAL. -ITALY. 


289 


PORTUGAL. 

l. 1428. The Portuguese have made little improvement 
in arts, manufactures, or even in agriculture; and they even 
tread out their grain with oxen, as was done in ancient 
times. 

Za Pol. iM. E. — How is Portugal bounded ? What is its capital ? For 
what is it remarkable ? (TT 1428.) 

II. 1429. Portugal is one of the smallest and least important 
kingdoms of Europe. 

1430. It lies on tlie western terrace of the table land of Spain, 
gr^i^lly descending to tlie sea. The surface is irregular; but a 
lajrafcart of it has a fertile soil. 

1431. The climate is dry, and very hot in summer. The unnters 
are mild in tlie lowlands, but cold on the highlands. 

II □ What rivers pass through Portugal ? 

m, 1432. Fortuiral yields all the productions of the Warm Re¬ 
gions, but t/te//eo/;/e are generally more ignorant and indolent than 
tliose of Spain ; agriculture and maniifucturts are neglected; and 
commerce, except the cruel slave trade, is left ch'.efly to foreigners. 

1433. Portugal has colonies in the Azores, Madeiras, and Cape Verd 
Islands, on the eastern and western coast of Africa, at Goa in Hin- 
doostan, and at Macao in China. 

HI. What seaports has Portugal besides the capital i In what region do you 
find Portugal on the Chart of Climates.’ What is the government, religion, and 
state of civilization, marked on the Moral Chart.’ 


ITALY. 



(159) Mt. Vesuvius. 

I. 1434. Italy is celebrated for its ancient volcanoes, — 
Mt. Etna in Sicily, and Mt. Vesuvius, one of whose erup- 
















306 


ASIA. 


1561. It consists of mountains and table lands, with fruitful valleys; and for¬ 
merly supported a rich and powerful nation. But it is now neglected and barren ; 
and most of its large cities and towns are reduced to miserable villages. 



15G2. Palestine is separated from the land of the ancient Moabites and Am¬ 
monites by a deep chasm called the P'alleyof Ghor. It contains the River Jordan, 
the Sea of Tiberias, and the Dead Sea; and is from 300 to 1300 feet below the 
level of the Mediterranean Sea, as represented in the preceding profile. 

III. What seaports has Turkey on the Black Sea ? What on the Aegean Sea, 
or Archipelago, and the coast of Syria What cities in the interior of Asia Mi¬ 
nor? What in the north-eastern part of Turkey? What towns and cities in the 
interior of Syria? Where are the ruins of Palmyra? What cities on the Tigris 
and Euphrates ? What river runs East of Palestine ? (See marginal Map of Syria.) 
What lakes does it form ? What is remarkable about its valley ? (IT 1562.) What 
towns do you find in Palestine ? What is the height of Jerusalem above the 
Mediterranean Sea? {See Profile, and scale of feet at the side.) How high is it 
above the Dead Sea ? 


ARMENIA, KOORDISTAN, AND ADERBIJAN. 

I. 1563. Armenia, Koordistan, and Aderbijan, are mountain 
lands connecting the table lands of Asia Minor and Persia. Thet/ 
belong chiefly to Turkey, and in part to Persia and the Russian 
Empire; but they are occupied principally by the Armenian and 
Nestorian Christians, and are thus distinct countries. 

X. Pol. M. A. and E. — Where is Armenia ? Where is Erivan, its chief 
city 1 What towns do you find in this region ? What country next S.-E.? 

II. 1564. These countries are rugged and mountainous; but 
the valleys are fertile, and the mountain pastures are rich. 

1565. The climate is mild or hot in tlie valleys ; but in the high¬ 
lands the winters are severe. 

II. What table lands do you find in this region ? What lakes ? What 
rivers rise here ? What mountain is there, on which it is supposed the 
ark of Noah rested ? 

III. 1566. The mountains of Armenia contain mines of gold, silver, and cop¬ 
per, and this country supplies a large part of Turkey with manufactures of copper. 

1567. The Armenians and Mestorians are civilized and Christian nations, though 
less improved than Europeans. The Armenians are distinguished for their honesty 
and enterprise, and are the chief merchants and bankers of Turkey. 

1568. The Pagan Koords are barbarous, and subsist chiefly by robbery. They 
have lately almost destroyed the mountain tribe of Nestorians. 










PERSIA. 


307 


PERSIA. 



(167) Travelling in Persia. 


I, 1569. The Persians usually travel on camels; and 
here, as in most countries of Asia, tlie women are shut up, 
or cover their faces with a thick veil when they go out. 

Z> Pol. M. A. — How is Persia bounded? What is its capital, and 
where ? What peculiar customs in Persia ? (IF 1569.) 

21. 1570. Persia is situated on the table land of Iran, and its 
surface is represented in the following profile. 



(168) Profile of Armenia and Iran, from the lilack Sea to llindoostan 


Describe the surface of the country from the Black Sea to the Vindhya Mts. 

1571. It is watered by few streams ; the greater part of it is dry 
and barren; and considerable tracts are entirely desert. 

1572. The climate on the lowlands of the Persian Gulf is in¬ 
tensely hot; and the table lands have excessive heat and severe 
cold. 

1573. So 7 ne of the terraces and valleys, between the border moun¬ 
tains, have a warm but mild climate, and a fertile, well-watered 
soil, which give them a rich vegetation. They are called “ para¬ 
dise ” by the Persians. 

What mountains border Persia on the N. ? On the E. ? On the W. ? 
Wh It sea or salt lake lias it ! What rivers ? 

















308 


ASIA. 


Ilia 1574- The people of Persia are ignorant and indolent. Apiculture, arts, 
and mamifactures are neglected ; and tliis kingdom, which was formerly distin¬ 
guished for learning, wealth, and power, is now poor and feeble. 

TTT- Where is Ispahan, the former capital of Persia ? What cities are there 
in the southern part? What in the northern part ? What seaport on the Persian 
Gulf? 

EASTERN IRAN, 

OR AFGHANISTAN AND BELOOCHISTAN. 



(169) Afghan Soldiers. 

I. 1575. Eastern Iran contains several distinct states, 
of which Afghanistan and Beloochistan are the principal. 
The men are all soldiers, and disposed to robbery ; and wars 
are so frequent, that the boundaries and government of the 
states are frequently changed. 

I. Pol. M. A. — How is Eastern Iran bounded? {It extends from 
Persia to the Solyman Mountains.) Wliat are the great divisions? (See 
also IT 1515.) What can you say of the inhabitants and the boundaries of 
the states ? (IT 1575.) What are the capital cities ? 

SI, 1576. Eastern Iran is a rugged, mountainous, elevated re¬ 
gion. 2'he heat of summer is scorching, hut the cold of winter is 
severe on account of the elevation; and tlie productions of the 
earth are scanty. 

JI, What mountains are there around Eastern Iran ? What passes are 
there through the Solyman Mountains ? What river flows through them ? 
Where is the Bolan pass? What cities in the northern parts? What in 
Beloochistan ? 

ZII. 1577. There are some populous cities, but a large part of the inhaMtants 
are wandering tribes, in a half-barbarous state, and pay little attention to agri¬ 
culture, manufactures, or commerce. 

1578. The Afghans are the most numerous, civilized, and powerful people, and 
once governed the whole of Eastern Iran. 'The Beloochees, who occupy the south¬ 
ern part, are all herdsmen and robbers. 








INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 


CHINESE EMPIRE. 309 


INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 



(170) Tartar Tents and Cattle Folds. 


I. 1579. Independent Tartary is generally a country of 
grassy plains, or of deserts, inhabited by wandering tribes, 
who subsist by pasturage and robbery, and live in tents 
made of coarse woollen cloth, or of felt. Some tribes have 
settled in states^ in the oases bordering on the rivers. 

Z. Pol. M. A. — How is Independent Tartary bounded? What states 
has it? V\Tiat cities? What can you say of it? (IT 1579.) What of its 
inhabitants ? 

SI. 1580. The eastern part of Independent Tartary is a rugged 
mountain land, inhabited by independent tribes. The ivestern pari 
consists chiefly of deserts of moving sand, with some fertile oases 
and river valleys. 

IZIi 1581. Khiva, Bokhara, and Kokand, are the •principal kingdoms or khanates. 
But the condition and divisions of the country vary with the motions of the sands 
and the wars of the people. 

1589. These countries were formerly verj' flourishing, as the centre of trade be¬ 
tween Europe and the centre of Asia. But the trade is now diminished ; and 
many of the cities have fallen to ruins. 

1583. They were once celebrated for learning and the arts ; and Bokhara still con¬ 
tains numerous schools and colleges^ for the study of the Mahometan law and reli¬ 
gion, which are said to have 10,000 students. 

XTZ. What rivers are there in Independent Tartary ? Where are Kliiva and 
Bokhara > Where is Kokand ? What sea does Independent Tartary contain 
What country is there in the northern part.^ 

CHINESE EMPIRE. 

I. 1584. The Chinese Empire is the most populous in 
the world, and one of the most extensive. It embraces 























310 


ASIA. 


China, Corea, Manclshuria, and the countries on the central 
table land of Asia, usually called Chinese Tartary. 

I. Fol. M. A. — In what part of Asia is China ? Where are Mandshu- 
ria and Corea 1 In what direction from China are the countries of tlie cen¬ 
tral table land ? 

CHINA. 



(171) Chinese Dress and Customs. 


I. 1585. China is so crowded with inhabitants, that in 
many parts, families live in boats on the water. The build¬ 
ings, dress, and customs of the people, are all unlike ours. 

I. Pol. M. A. — How is China bounded? What is its capital? In 
w'hat part of the Idngdom ? What is remarkable in China I (IT 1.5do.) 

H. 1586. The declivity of tlie table land occupies the icesiern 
part of China, and renders it mountainous. The eastern jntrt is a 
rich lowland, traversed by large rivers and canals. 

1587. China has every variety of soil; but the people are so in¬ 
dustrious, that almost every spot is cultivated, even to the tops of 
the mountains. In this Avay it supports twenty times as many peo¬ 
ple as the United States, on a smaller territory. 

1588. China has the climate and productions of the Hot, Warm, 
and Temperate Regions, and thus supplies its own wants. The 
most rcmarkahle p'oduct is tea, which is exported to almost all civ¬ 
ilized countries. 

II. What mountains are there in the South of China ? What in the 
North? What are the two great rivers of China ? What river S. of the 
Nanting Mountains ? What river N. of the Hoang-ho ? What islands on 
the coast of China ? 

III. 1589. 'Die Chinese are industrious, and very skilful in agriculture and many 












CHINESE TARTAllY -JAPAN. 311 


of the arts. Thdr manufactures are numerous and valuable ; and thevr commerce is 
extensive, both in native and foreign vessels. 

1590. The Chinese have for ages printed books from blocks of wood; and their 
oton learning is encouraged by government, but not that of other nations. 

1591. The Portuguese have a settlement at Macao, at the mouth of the river below 
Canton ; and the British possess the island of Hong Kong, which lies near it. 

XII. What w'all do you find North of China, and how far does it extend ? 
On what river is Pekin ? What other cities in the northern part of China ? What 
are some of the principal seaports of China? What city on the river above 
Macao * 


CHINESE TARTARY 


2 . 1592. Chinese Tartary includes Corea, Mandshuria, 
and the countries on the central table land. The most re¬ 
markable country is Thibet, whose ruler is the Grand Lama. 
lie is the head of their religion, and a kind of living idol, 
worshipped by most of the tribes of the table land, and 
many others in Asia. 

When the Grand Lama dies, his worshippers believe that his soul passes 
into the body of some child, who is sought for by the priests, and placed 
upon the throne. 

I. Fol. M. A. — How is Chinese Tartary bounded ? Where is Mand¬ 
shuria ? What is most remarkable in Chinese Tartary ? (Tl 1592.) Corea ? 
Thibet I Mention some of the towns in each division. 

IX. 1593. Mambihuria is a well-watered mountain land; and 
Corea is a fertile and populous peninsula. But the countries on the 
table land consist chiefly of steppes and deserts, with few streams 
and lakes, and have no fertile soil, except on their borders. 

l.'jOd. The climate is hot in summer, and severely cold in 
winter; and so dry, that in many parts, meat can be preserved 
witliout salt. 

II. What mountains border Chinese Tartary 1 What ranges cross 
t ? W^iat lakes and rivers on tiie table land ? What great river in Mand¬ 
shuria ? 

III. 1595- Many of the steppes furnish rich pastures; and most of the people 
are wandering, barbarous tribes. Some are settled, and have large towns, and a 
considerable share of the trade from China to Western Asia 5 but none aic icell 
known to us. 

ITT, What are the chief political divisions of Chinese Tartary ? What towns 
in Mandshuria and Corea? What in the northern part of the table land ? The 
western ? The southern ? 


JAPAN. 

I, 1596. The Lmpire of Japan comprises the three islands 
of Jesso or Yesso, Niphon, and Kiusiu, with several smaller 

islands. - , • u mj 

1597. The dresses of the Japanese, as well as their build- 

II 




312 


ASIA, 


ings, customs, and mode of living, resemble those of the 
Chinese, but are entirely unlike those of Europeans. 



{\1Z) Japanese in their Dresses. 

X. Pol. M. J.— Where does tiio eiii})ire cf -hipun lie ? What islaiid.s 
does it comprise ? (inohG.) v'-'hat p.ortioiis oi’water bound it ? WhicJi 
is the largest island ? Wliich is tin; most soutlscrn t 'i'l.e most r.orthern ? 
What is tiio capital, and v.licre / 


IS. ir)98. The Empire of Japan is like (rrcat ijritaiu in its sit¬ 
uation. The islands are traversed fty nionntains, with sevc'ral vol¬ 
canic peaks ; but they conUiin rich mitics^ and a great deal of fer¬ 
tile land, which is highly cnllivaled. 

1599. 77te climaie is cold in tlie noitliorn jtarts. In (he southern, 
it is tvarin, and 2 Jrodiices tea, nee, cotton, and other [dants of the 
Warm Regions. 


Hi. 1600. ThcJupa:tc.-iCa.rc rcmarkablcp.n\\one^ A.^iaties, fbrth.iir Kin;''. I.-ilcc and 
industry. Books are printed among them iVoin Idx ks i f wood, as in China ; and 
they have many books of science, history, and p(H-trv. 

IGOl. They surpass all other lutti: r>s of ^']sia in agricnftiiro, ina.'iufactures, and 
internal commerce, in their roaiis and iiosts for letters, a.nd in tlie regularity and 
justice of the government, ahnougli it is often cruel and tyrannical. Fore a-n 
commerce is allotved only with the Chinese and Dutch, at the*single port of Nan- 
gasaki ; and we know little of tl.e geor,:iphy of the empire. 

1002. Japan has two emperor.s —the Dairi, who takes care of religion and educa¬ 
tion, and the Kabo, or general of the army, who really governs the country. 

£ZZ. /V\hat counUies of Europe are in the same latitude with Japan ? What 
of America. (SceJiIapofJ\r.,^m.) What island lies iNorth of it, bclon«'ing to 

SgaSi? Where is 









































ARASIA. 


313 


SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF ASIA, 


I. Pol. M. A. — \Vhrit countries ol'Asia lie chiefly South of latitude 
2d° ? In what zone is the greater part of them 1 What climate and pro¬ 
ductions may we expect to find ? {See Chart of Climates.) 


ARABIA 



(173) Arabs in their Tents. 


I, 1(503. The greater part of Arabia ronshts steppes 
and deserts. I'heij arc inhabited by wandering tribes, who 
live in tents and subsist on the milk and flesh of their camels 
and other cattle, and by the robbery of* travellers. 

1(504. Their Iwr.se.s are the swiftest in the world ; atnl the 
Arabs take as much care of them as of their children. 

Oil the iieninsula, at the head of tiie lied Sea, are A’t. Sinai, from which 
tile Law oF-Ood was given, aii.l Mi. Horeb. They are visited hy numerous 
pilgrims. Mecca, which was tiie hirthpilacc of Mahomet, is considered the 
cipitil. 

I, Pol. iM. A. — How is Ar ibia !)Ounded'? Where is Mecca ? Of what 

(loe.s Arabia consist ? (![ 1603.) How inhabited? What is remarkable 

among the .Vrabs ? (*F IGOi.) 

SS. 1(505. The only fertile parts of Arabia are the oases in tlie 
desert, and the coasts of Oman, on the South-East, and of Yemen, 
or the Happy Arabia, (Arabia Felix,) on the South-West. 

1(506. The climate of Arabia is scorching, and, in tiie deserts and 
lowlands of the coast, almost insupportable to strangers. The 
well-watered regions yield coffee, the richest gums and spices, and 
other productions of the Torrid Zone. 

II. What isthmus connects Arabia with Africa ? What table lands do 
you find ? What mountains ? Where is the lowland of Tehama ? Do you 
iind any large rivers in .Arabia ? 












314 


ASIA. 


IXI. 1607. The Arabians are dicided into numerous iudepeiident tribes and 
small states. Yemen and Oman are well-cultivated, flourishiu" states. The sultan 
of Oman, or Muscat, has extensive commerce, in his own ships, and a consider, 
able navy, and has conquered a large part of the Eastern coast of Africa. 

1606. The people of the towns are more corrupt, and not more civilized, than tlie 
wandering tribes 5 and agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, are neglected. 

III. What are the divisions of Arabia knov n to us on the West(See Polit. 
Map of Asia.) What on the EastWhat on the South.? What in the centre? 
What seaports are there on the Red Sea ? Wiiich is the largest town here ? 
What seaport on the Gulf of Ormus ? What cities and towns are there in the 
interior ? What town at the head of the Red Sea ? 


HINDOOSTAN. 



(174) School-House, or Bungalow, in Ilindoostan. 


I. 1609. The school-houses in Ilindoostan are unlike 
ours. Tlie scholars have neither desk nor bench, and write 
their lessons on palm leaves, with a pointed piece of iron. 
There are few roads in the country ; and the j^cople gcncr- 
allij travel on elephants, or in palanquins carried by men. 

I. Pol. M. A. — Hovv is Hindoostan bounded? What lofty mountains 

on tlie North ? What is tlie chief city, at the mouth of the Ganges ? What 
is remarkable in the customs of the people '! 1G09.) 

II. 1610. Hindoostan is a peninsula, nearly triangular, shut in 
on the North and West by mountains, wliicii have few passes. 

1611. There are many fertile teiraces and table lands among the 
Himalaya Mountains, some of which arc the seat of independent 
kingdoms. 

1612. Ht the fool of the mountains are the broad plains which 
form the basin of the Ganges; and South of these, the fertile 
table land of the Deckan, bordered by the Eastern and Western 
Ghauts, as represented in the following profile. 


























CHIN-INDIA. 


315 



How do you ascend and descend on this profile ? What mountains and 
places do you find, in crossing the Deckan from W. to E. ? 

1613. Hindoostan has every variety of soil. The north-western 
part is a sandy desert; but it is genemllif very fertile, and Avell- 
Avatered. 

1614. The cliinaic and productions of the lowlands are those of 
the Torrid Zone; but the heat is not generally so oppressive as 
that of Africa. In Assam, on the Nortli-East, tea is cultivated. 
The table lands and terraces have every variety of climate, accord¬ 
ing to their height. 

Whit moiintiins cross Hindoostan in the centre ? What mountains 
border the table land of the Deckan ? Where are the Nilgerry Hills, re¬ 
markable for their fine climate ? What two great rivers in the northern 
part of Hindoostan ? WTiat rivers in the southern part? What large 
island near the southern cape ? What small islands on the W. ? What 
name is given to the eastern coast ? The western ? 

1615. Hindoostan contains various states and nations, with a great variety 
of character and condition. large part of the Hindoos are feeble, mild, and 
peaceful. But they have generally no regard to truth or honesty, and their re¬ 
ligion teaches them that they may drown their children, leave their friends to 
perish, and burn widows alive. 

1616. TIte greater part of Hindoostan has been conquered, and is possessed, by the 
British. They also govern the large, fertile island of Ceylon, which is celebrated 
for its cinnamon and other spices. 

XIX. What seaports are there on the Malabar coast {Bombay is on an %sland.) 
What on tlie Coromandel coastW'hat other cities in the South.? W’^hat be¬ 
tween the Deckan and the Ganges.? What on the Ganges, beginning at its 
mouth.? W’^hat on the Indus.? What cities near the Himalaya Mountains.? 
What cities has Ceylon, and where.? Wliat groups of islands lie S. W. of Hin¬ 
doostan .? 

CHIN-INDIA. 

I, 1617. Chin-India, or India beyond the Ganges, lies 
between the Ganges and the China Sea, and includes the 
empires of Burmah and Anam, with Siam, and a number of 
smaller states, little known. 

Chin-India is an abbreviation for Chinese India j pronounced Chine- 
In-di-a. 

1618. Chin-India lies in the Torrid Zone. It is watered 
by numerous stre:uns, which render it fertile in all the pro¬ 
ductions of that zone. 














316 


ASIA 


BURMAH. 



(176) Elephants carrying Burdens, 


I. 1619. Chin-India abounds in elephants of great size 
and strength, which are trained to carry burdens, and even 
to assist in unloading ships. .Burmah is rcmarkablf for the 
white elephants, which are worshipped. 

la Pol. M. A. — How is Burmah bounded ? What river runs through 
it? What is the capital ? What remarkable animals here ? (IT 1619.) 

H. 1620. Burmah mdiides several kingdoms, and is one of the 
most powerful states of Southern Asia. It is traversed by numerous 
streams, which give it great fertility. 

1621. The soil is rich. The climate is hot, but more temperate 
and healthful tlian that of Hindoostan. In the north, it is so ele¬ 
vated as to produce wheat. 

III. 1C22. The Burmaris are more intelligent and industrious than the Hin¬ 
doos ; and arts and manufactures are well undeistood. Aracan has been con¬ 
quered by the British. 

Ilia. What towns in Burmah besides the capital } What islands S. of it i 
Where is Aracan ? What towns do you find ? 

SIAM. 

I. 1623. In Siam, as in some of the neighboring coun¬ 
tries, the people are obliged to build their houses on posts, to 
avoid the annual floods of their rivers, which cover the 
country. 

I. Pol. M. A. — Where is Siam ? Between what kingdoms does it lie ? 
{Boundaries uncertain.) What is its capital ? What other toivns ? What 
is remarkable in the houses of Siam ? (IT 1623.) 


























EMPIRE or ANA.iE —-MALACCA, O i 

ZZ, 1G24. Siam lies in an extensive and fertile valley, watered 
by tlie River Menam. It is bordered by mountains and mountain¬ 
ous regions, which are rugged and unproductive. The climate is 
hot, and the productions are valuable. 

jjj, 1625. The Siamese are generally taught to read, and are intelligent and 
skilful'in many of the arts. Great numbers of Chinese reside here, who carry on 
most of the commerce. 

EMPIRE OF AN AM, OR TONKIN. 


Dresses of the Emperor of Aiuim and his Subjects. 

I 1626 The Empire of Anam embraces the kingdoms 
)f Tonkin ’ Cochin-China, Cambodia, and some other small 
,tales, none of which are well kuomi. The people dress 
n long, loose garments, which are different m each rank. 

T Pol M A — Wl.ereaie the kingdoms which compose the Empire 
Alf Hot is this empire bounded t Whays its capital 1 What ,s 
here peculiar in the dress ot the people ? (IT IbiG.) 

Xr 1627. The most important paH of the Empire of Anam ap¬ 
pears’to consist of the lowlands lying between the sea 
nountains. They are well-watered and fertile, and yield all the 
orodiidions of th’e Torrid Zone. 

1628 The people of these countries appear to be intelligent, industrious, 
vnd st’lful in many of the ; and their commerce is valuable ; but they have 

he ordinary cwstMins of Pagan nations. TTTv,„t ..nio- ? 

222, 'Vbat gieat river in Anain ? What countries ? rt hat citie= . 

MALACCA. 

T 1629. The peninsula of Malacca forms the southern 
extremity of Chin-India, and is occupied by various tribes 




















318 


iWSlA* 


of the Malay race. (U 552.) They are chiefly remarkable 
for their courage and cruelty as pirates; and the country 
has never been explored. Singapore belongs to the British. 

X. Pol. M. A. — How is Malacca bounded ? What is its southern cape ? 
What island lies West of it? What towns do you find ? Where is Singa¬ 
pore ? For what are the people remarkable ? (H 1629.} 

Ill. CITIES OF ASIA. 

1630. Asia abounds with large cities much inferior to those of Europe. 
The buildings are generally mean, and crowded with inhabitants, 't'he 
streets are extremely narrow, irregular, and filthy, and not usually paved. 

1631. In Westeiix Asia, the hotises of the rich are usually of stone, or of 
brick, which are sometimes only sun-dried. They are generally built around 
a court or space in the centre, from which they receive most of their light 
and air, and which is frequently adorned with gardens and fountains. 

1632. The houses are often magnificent within ; but they have few or no 
windows towards the street, and present to the traveller only a dismal suc¬ 
cession of high walls, with here and there a lattice, producing the appear¬ 
ance of a range of prisons. The roofs are usually flat, so that the inhabitants 
can pass from one house to another, or even across the streets, by bridges, 
without descending. They often sleep on the house-top, in summer. 

1633. The houses of the poor are usually low and mean, built of mud, or a 
mixture of small stones and mortar. 

1634. Instead of churches, the Mahometan cities are adorned wdthmos^itc.s, 
which are often very splendid. They have minarets, or circular towers, 
with a gallery, from which a crier calls the people at the hour of prayer. 

1635. The cities of Turkey, like others on the Mediterranean, are subject 
to the plague, which often destroys great numbers of the inhabitants. 

1636. The cities of Eastei-n and Southern Asia (except a few in Hindoos- 
tan) are poorly built, and much inferior to those of Western Asia. The 
houses arc generally low, thatched huts, formed of mud, or of bamboo. 

1637. These cities are built of so slight materials, that they are frequently 
destroyed by fire, but are easily rebuilt. The temples and pagodas are gen¬ 
erally the only buildings w'hich have any beauty; and they are often splen¬ 
didly adorned with gold and gilding, especially in China and Burmah. 

1638. Most of the cities of Asia are surrounded with walls, usually of 
mud, or sun-dried bricks. Many of them are partially in ruins. 

1639. Astrachan is a place of great trade, situated on an island in the 
Volga. Its population is a mixed assemblage of various nations. Irkutsk,. 
the principal town of Eastern Siberia, is a place of considerable trade and 
population, resembling European cities in its churches and public buildines. 
Catharinburg, Tobolsk, and Tomsk, are important on account of the trade 
carried on through them, from Russia, to Siberia and China.. Tiflis is noted 
for its wann baths. 

1640. Samarcand was formerly the most renowned city of the East. 
Bokhara is a place of considerable trade and importance. Both are noted 
for their Mahometan colleges. 

1641. Aleppo is the principal city of Asiatic Turkey. Damascus is beau¬ 
tifully situated on the River Pharpar. Both these cities are adorned with 
many fine buildings, and are important for their manufactures and commerce. 
Smyrna is the chief seat of foreign trade in Turkey. Bagdad is also an im¬ 
portant seat of commerce, but meanly built. Jerusalem is built on the ruins 
of the ancient city, and is resorted to by Christian pilgrims. 

1642. Teheran is chiefly important as the residence of the king and court 
of Persia. Ispahan, the former capital, is still the first conunercial city of 


CITIES OF ASIA. 


319 


Pefsia. It was formerly a city of immense size, and tlie principal mosques 
imd payees are still very grand. Its ruins are several miles in extent. 
Shiras is celebrated for its fine climate, and for the beauty of its environs. 
as well as for its colleges. Bushire is the chief seaport of Persia. 

lG-f3. Mecca is celebrated as the birthplace of Mahomet. It is well 
built, and derives great wealth from the immense concourse of Mahometan 
pilgrims. Medina is meanly built. It contains the tomb of Mahomet. 

1644, Sana is considered the largest and most populous city of Arabia. 
Mocha is the chief seaport of ,fVrabia, and the seat of its trade with Europe. 

IG^lo. Cabul is an ancient city. It has an extensive trade with Tartary, 
Persia, and India. Peshuwer is one of the residences of the king of Cabul, 
and the resort of people from all parts of India and Western Asia. 

1646. Calcutta is the metropolis of British India. Its commerce is very 
extensive j and it is inhabited by merchants from every part of the globe. 
The houses of the English resemble European palaces. The natives in¬ 
habit a distinct portion of the town, built in the Asiatic manner. 

1617. Madras is the capital of the British possessions in the South of 
India, and Bombay of those in the West. Bombay is situated on a small, 
barren island, near the coast, and has extensive commerce. Columbo is the 
British capital of Ceylon. It resembles the cities of Europe in appearance. 

1648. Goa is a populous city and territory, possessed by the Portuguese. 
Pondicherry belongs to the French; and IVanquebar, to the Danes. 

1649. Benares is the most populous city of India, and celebrated as a holy 
city, and a seat of learning. Many of its houses are large and well built, 
and it is crowded with persons from all parts of India, who come here to 
die. Delhi, the former capital of Hindoostan, is now much reduced. Poo- 
nak is tlie modern capital of the empire of the Mahrattas. 

IGoO. Ava is the present residence of the emperor of Burmah. Bankok 
i.s a con.siderable city, built in part on rafts in the river. Kesho, the capital 
of Tonkin, has some wide streets and good buildings. Faifo is a seaport of 
Cochin-China, sometimes visited by Europeans. Malacca contains many 
good houses of stone, and has a college founded by English missionaries. 

16.51. China abounds in large cities 3 but we know only the names of 
most of them. Pekin is probably the most extensive and populous city in 
tile world. It is the residence of the emperor of China. Nankin, the for¬ 
mer residence of the emperor, is distinguished for its porcelain tower, and 
for tlie cotton cloth called nankeen. Canton is the principal port in China, 
at which Europeans and Americans trade. All the cities known m (Aiina 
are very uniform in their appearance and mode of building, and remarkable 
for their crowded population, and for the trades carried on in the streets. 

1652. Moxikdenor Chen IVtug, the capital of the Mandshur Tartars, is said 
to be an extensive city. Cash^ar is the residence of the Chinese governor 
of Tart'iry. Lassa is the residence of the Grand Lama of Tibet, and is 
crowded with his worshippers, from all parts of Asia. 

16.53. Jeddo is one of the most populous cities on the globe. It is the 
residence of the emperor of Japan, whose palace is a city in itself. Meaco 
is the centre of religion and knowledge in the empire. Nangasaki is the 
only place in Japan at which Europeans are allowed to trade. 

2II. TRAVELS ON THE MAP OF ASIA. 

1654. Begin on the northern coast of Asia, and travel on the map around 
the coast to Arabia; and then by the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and 
Black Seas ; and mention the countries and places you pass, and what you 
recollect which is remarkable in each. Observe the seaports 5 then travel 
up the rivers 3 and finally, go over the mountains to the table lands, and re- 
ruember wh.Tt von have learned of the places you visit. 

\ 4 * 


320 


AFHICA. 


AFRICA. 


I. 1655. Africa was oiicc celebrated for science and 
arts; but it is now remarkable, chiefly, for its deserts scorched 
with heat, its fierce and noxious animals, and the ignorance 
and barbarism of its inhabitants. It is the least known and 
the least important division of the continents. 

1656. Africa resetnhles South America in its compact 
form, 269,) but it differs from it in having its surface 
covered to a great extent with deserts and table lands, in¬ 
stead of rich plains, and it has few rivers. 

Z. Qu. and Ex. —1655. For what is Africa remarkable? 1656. How 
does it resemble S. America ? ilov/ does it differ from it ? What is the 
comparative size of Africa? 268.) What figure v.fill enclose it? 
(li 269.) What can you say of its sea-coast and commerce? (H 270.) 
Phys. M. of A. — On which continent is Africa ? In what zones does it lie j 
H ow is it bounded ? What isthmus connects it with Asia ? What is the 
most northern cape ? Southern ? Fasteim ? Western ? What large isl¬ 
and on the S.-E. belonging to .Vfrica ? 


SI. lIHillb.VNDS. 


1657. On every side cf the southern half of Africa, (see H 271,) we find the 
land rising, in several terraces, to a great height, and rivers flowing dowm 
from a region in the interior. This must be a table land, still higher, which 
is called the table land of Southern Africa ; but it is not well known. 

1668. The declivities of this table land generally consist of two terraces, 
separated by ranges of mountains, as in the profile. Some of the terraces 
are dry and desert, like the Karroo terraces above the Cape of Good Hope; 
others are fertile, like the kingdom of Alocaranga, on the eastern coast. 


JVinne nelU 


ty ^ ^ A 



(178) Profile of the Terraces in South Africa. 


1659. The Bokkeveld or Snow Mountains, which separate the terraces 
at the South, appear to continue along the eastern and western coasts, with 
various names, to Cape Guardafui and the Gulf of Guinea, and to form sim¬ 
ilar terraces on all sides. 

1660. The Kong Mountains, which run parallel to the coast of the Gulf 
of Guinea, form the border of another table land. It extends West to the 
coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and is called Upper Soudan. 


JZ, H, 1657. What do we find in the southern half of Africa i 1658. What 
can you say of the declivities.? Of the terraces.? 1659. Describe the mountains 
at the Pouth, and th ur continuation. 1660. What can you say of the Kong Mts. ? 






TERRACES AND LOWLANDS. 321 

IG 6 L The mountain land of Abyssinia lies on the North-East, and is 
probably a branch of the great table land. 

The table land probably desQpnds in terraces on the North also. The 
natives say that there is a chain of mountains here, called the Jibel Kumri. 

1G62. The highlands of the soutiiern portion of Africa are bordered on 
the Aorth by the Great Desert of Sahara and its neighboring plains. North 
of the desert, we find the small plateau of Barca on the North-East, and the 
more extensive table land of Barbary on the northern coast. 

1G63. The table land of Barbary, which contains the Barbary States, lies 
between the Sahara and the Meditei'ranean Sea. It is bordered on the 
North by the Lesser Atlas, which lias a steep declivity towards the Med¬ 
iterranean, and on the South, by the Greater Atlas, sloping towards the 
desert. 

16G4. On the JVest it reaches the High Atlas, whosp declivity tov/ards 
the Atlantic belongs to the empire of Morocco j but all its chains ofmoun^ 
tains are irregular and broken. 

12. TERRACES AND LOWLANDS. 

1GG.5. The terraces around the great plateau of Southern Africa have been 
already described. Hie coasts are bordered by narrow lowlands, varying 
very much in their character. 

IGGG. fn the temperate climate of the Cape of Good Hope, the lowland 
is well watered, fertile, and healthy. On the eastern and western coast, it is 
generally fertile, but excessively hot and unhealthy. 

1GG7. The lowland on the Red Sea is a barren, scorching region of sand; 
and the coast between the Cape of Good Hope and Southern Guinea ap¬ 
pears to be almost a desert. 

] GG 8 . In the middle regions is the great lowland of Africa. The western 
coast is sandy and desert, near the sea. In the basins of the Rivers Senegal 
and Gambia, it is well watered and fertile 3 but it is so level, that the 
streams spread into shallow, unhealthy lakes and marshes. 

1G69. The country extending from Senegambia to the valley of the Nile 
is called Lower Soudan, and is so shut in by highlands and deserts, that it 
is very little known. It is divided into two parts by the mountain land of 
Houssa. 

1G70. I'he western part lies chiefly in the valley of the River Niger, and 
appears to be a rich, cultivated region, containing several powerful king¬ 
doms. The eastern part is a very moist region, abounding in streams. 
Some of these are lost in the sands of the Sahara 5 but most of them spread 
into lakes and swamps. 

ZZ. 1661. Of Abyssinia? 1662. How are the highlands mentioned, bordered 
on the North ? What table lands N. of the Sahara ? 1663. Describe the table land 
of Barbary. 1664. How far does it extend on the West? What can you say of 
its mountains ? T. L. 1665. What can you say of the lowlands ? 1666. How 
are they at the Cape of Good Hope ? On the eastern and western coasts ? 
1667. On the Red Sea? 1668. In the middle regions of Africa?. In the basins 
of the Senegal and Gambia Rivers? 1669. What is Lower Soudan? How is it 
divided? 1670. What is known of the western part? What of the eastern ^ 
Of its streams ? 




322 


aFKICA, 


1671. Thewaterless ocean of the Sahara is the most extensive level 
fegion of Africa, and the largest desert in the world. The western part is a 
low region of burning sands, moving in waves like the sea j. and is so im¬ 
pregnated with salt, that extensive tracts are covered with crystals, glitter¬ 
ing like a crust of ice. 

1672. In the western part, the oases (H 299) are rare, and of small extent} 
and yet it is crossed by caravans, by the aid of the wonderful “ ship of the 
desert,’^ the camel, which carries its own supplies of water, and travels for 
great distances, and with great rapidity, over these desolate regions, with 
very little food or drink. 

1673. Towards the centre of the desert, the land rises to an elevation of 
1200 to 1400 feet. Oases are more common, as we go towards the East. 
Jn the eastern section, we find generally a surface of naked rocks j but the 
oases are so extensive as to form the kingdoms of Fezzan on the North, 
and of Darfoor and Kordofan on the South, besides others of considerable 
size on the borders of Egypt. 

1674. Ihe eastern part of Middle Africa is occupied by the Nile and its 
narrow but fertile valley, only ten miles broad, and by rocky deserts, which 
extend on each side of it, to the Sahara and the Red Sea. 

1675. The Nile heloto Abyssinia descends over two terraces. Tlic tipper 
terrace is crossed by chains of rocks, over which the river flows in numer¬ 
ous rapids and falls, the last of which is at Syene. This terrace contains 
Nubia and Sennaar. 

1676. 27te lower terrace of the Nile, on which Egypt is situated, descends 
gradually, until it spreads into the broad, level delta of Lower Egypt. 

I. Exercises on the Physical Map of South America and Africa. _ 

Highlands. — What highland occupies the greater part of Southern Africa ? 
How far North does it extend, on the eastern and westeni coasts ? What 
mountains form its borders on the N. and S. ? (If 1659.) What mountain 
land on the N.-E. ? (TT 1661.) What mountains are said to border it on 
the N. ? What table land in Western Africa ? What table lands in North¬ 
ern Africa ? Which is the largest '! 

Terraces and Lowlands. — VVhere do we find the great lowland of Africa 
comprising the western part of the Sahara ? What name is given "to the 
western part of the desert ? The eastern ? What to the interior 1 What 
are the principal oases of the desert ? What river and valley E. of the 
Li^an Desert ? 

Kivers and Lakes. — What is the great river of Northern Africa ? Are 
there any others of considerable size ? What is the great river of Central 
Africa ? What others on the western coast ? What are the source course 
and place of emptying, of each of these rivers ? Which of these rivers 
have deltas ? What rivers in Southern Africa, on the W. ? What on the 
considerable lakes in Africa? {That which forms one. source 
of the Nile, in Abyssinia, is Lake Tsana, or Dembea.) 


II. 1671. What can you say of the Sahara I Of the western part ? 1672. Are 
^ere many oases there ? 167.3. How is the desert towards the centre i On the 
^ast i What oases in the eastern part I 1674. How is the eastern part of Middle 

^ terraces in the valley of the Nile ? Describe 

ine nrst. 1676. The lower terrace. 




PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 


323 


1 . PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

Phys. and Pol. M. of Africa. — What considerable table land is there in 
northern Africa ? What countries occupy it ? What countries in the val 
ley of the Nile ? What in the western part of the middle region ? What 
countries lie in the central region of Africa, S. of the Sahara ? What 
countries on the southern declivity of the Kong Mountains ? What is sup¬ 
posed to be in the middle of Southern Africa? {Be.e. IT 1G57.) What coun¬ 
tries lie on the western declivity of the great southern table land ? What 
on the southern declivity ? On the eastern ? • 

la EXERCISES ON SITUATION. 

Point out on the Political Map of Africa the following oceans, seas, capes, 
&c., and describe their situation. 

Oceans. — Atlantic and Indian. 

Seas. — Mediterranean and Red. 

Capes.-—C. Bon, C. Guardafui, C. of Good Hope, Laguillas, Verd, Cor- 
rientes, Voltas, Frio, Negro, Padroon, Lopez, Formosa, Palmas, Sierra 
Leone, Blanco, Bojador, TNun, Geer, Spartel. 

Gridfs and Bays. — Gabes, Sidra, Delagoa, Algoa, Table, Benin. 

Straits. — Gibraltar, Babelmandel, Mozambique Channel. 

Rivers. —Nile, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Quillimancy, Zambeze, Orange, 
Coanza, Zaire or Congo, Grande. 

Mountains. —Atlas, Jibel Kumri or Mts. of the Moon, Samen, Kong, 
Lupata, Nieuweveld. 

Deserts. — Sahara, Libya, Sahel, Karroo. 

Lakes. — Tchad, Tsana or Dembea, Zambeze, or Maravi. 

Islands. —Socotra, Madagascar, Almirante, Providence, Comoro, Mauri¬ 
tius, Bourbon, Amsterdam, St. PauFs, Tristan d’Acunha, Kerguelen’s, St. 
Helena, Ascension, St. Matthew’s, St. Thomas, Prince’s, Fernando Po, 
C. Verd, Canaries, IMadeira, Azores. 

Relative Situations, or Courses and Bearings. — What is the direction 
from C. Verd to C. Guardafui ? Cairo to the C. of Good Hope ? C. Verd 
to C. of Good Hope ? City of Morocco to Cairo ? What city in America is 
in about the same latitude with these two cities ? What would be your 
course in sailing from the C. of Good Hope to St. Helena? St. Helena to 
the United States ? C. of G. Hope to Buenos Ayres ? What countries of 
Europe lie N. of Morocco ? Of Algiers? Tunis and Tripoli ? What coun¬ 
try of Asia lies N. of Egypt? [See Polit. Map of Asia.) What E. ? What 
is the direction of the caravan route from Tombuctoo to Morocco ? To 
Algiers ? Tripoli ? Cairo ? 

xz. NAVIGATION. 

1677. We have already seen that Africa has less sea-coast, and fewer 
advantages for foreign commerce, in proportion to its size, than any other 
division of the world. Internal commerce is also much obstructed by its 
deserts and highlands. 

1678. The River Zambeze, and most of the streams that ficno from the 
great table land of Southern Africa, are generally too rapid, and have too 
short a course, to be used for navigation. The Zaire, which is the largest, 
is much obstructed by rocks j and the Orange River is often almost dry, for 
one or two years. 

1679. Tlie Quorra-Joliba, or Niger, spreads, in its upper coxirse, into a 
considerable sheet of water, called Lake Dibbie; and is navigabis in boats. 

XIa 1677. Has Africa advantages for foreign commerce.^ For .nternal 

commerce i 1678. What can you say of the streams that flow from the sf'Pthern 
table land? Of the Zaire? Of the Orange River? ]r>79. Of the Niger, in its 
tipper course ’ 





324 


AFRICA. 


The lower course has been navigated by steamers, from the sea to the rapids 
of Boussa 5 and-ite delta is crossed by numerous channels, navigable for sea 
vessels. 

1680. The Senegal and Gambia flow through a very flat country, and are 
so shallow, and have so many bars and shoals, that navigation is much 
obstructed. 

1681. Lake Tchad, and the numerous streams of Eastern Soudan, afford 
channels of boat navigation in every direction, on which the products of this 
country are conveyed to the places of caravan trade, near the desert. 

1682. The Nile is the most remarkable river of Africa for internal naviga¬ 
tion. When the water is high, small sloops can navigate it for some dis¬ 
tance 5 but it is chiefly used for boats, which ascend 6(30 miles, to the falls 
of Syene. The canai, which supplies Alexandria with the fresh water of the 
Nile, is also used for navigation from that city. 

ZI. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. 

1683. Africa lies chiefly in the Torrid Zone. Its dry, sandy plains and 
deserts give its lowlands a burning heat which is not common in other 
parts of this zone. It is rich in all the productions of the Equatorial Region, 
and its inhabitants obtain their food vvith very little labor. 

1684. In Barbary, Egypt, and South Africa, the climate is more temperate, 
and we find grain, and the products of the Hot and Warm Regions. 

1685. Africa is remarkable for forests of the peculiar kind of acacia-tree 
which yields gum Arabic; and of the palm-tree, which yields the date, the 
palm wine, and the palm oil. One of its trees baobab — is said to be 
the largest in the world, and to live several thousand years. 

1686. The eastern coast of Africa produces many of the rich perfumes, 
gums, and spices, which are usually called Arabian. The ivory of the ele¬ 
phant, and the beautiful feathers of the ostrich, are also valuable products. 

1687. The rivers of Africa, which are of so little use in commerce, 
abound in sands containing grains of gold, which are washed out by the 
natives j and gold dust is one of the most important articles of commerce. 

Chart of Climates. — Look at the Chart of Climates, and mention in what 
regions the greater part of Africa lies. What are the chief productions of 
the Equatorial Region '/ Into what regions does it extend North and South ? 
What are their productions ? Mention the animals you find on the chart. 

zzz. INHABITANTS. 

1688. Africa is inhabited chiefly by the natives of the Negro race. But 
in Abyssinia, and the countHes of Northern Africa, the people are generally 
of the European race ; and many of the tribes resemble the Arabs. 

1689. Africa contains several colonies of Europeans ; and in these Chris¬ 
tianity and civilization are found, but not in the best state. The Portuguese 
have long had colonies in Southern Guinea, and on the eastern coast of 
Africa. The colony of the Cape of Good Hope is inhabited by the Dutch 
and English; Algiers has been lately colonized by the French j and all these 
imtions, and the Danes, possess small colonies for trade, on the coast of 

II, Of the lower course ? 1680. Of the Senegal and Gambia Rivers ? 1681. Of 
Lake Tchad, and the streams of Eastern Soudan? 1682. Of the Nile? What 
navigable canal is there from this river? 1683. In tvhat zone does Africa lie? 
What can you say of the climate, and of its lowlands? 1684. What of the 
northern and southern parts? Do these parts lie in the Torrid Zone ? (See Map.) 
168.5. For what forests is Africa remarkable? What can you say of the baobab? 

1686. What valuable products on the eastern coast ? What from animals ? 

1687. What from the sands of the rivers? 

XIX. I. 1688. By what race of men is Africa inhabited ? 1689. What is the 
state of the European colonies’ What are the most important colonies? 




NORTHERN AFRICA. 325 

Western Africa. The Abyssinians arc the only native Christian nation in 
their religion is corrupted, and their customs barbarous. 

lOJO. 7 he nations of Northern Africa, and several tribes on the eastern 
coast, and m Western and Central Africa, are Mahometans, and among tne 
lowest of the half-civilized nations, but superior to any others in Africa 

16J1. ^Fost of the inhabitants of Africa profess tliat kind of Pagan religion 
whicli IS called Fe'ichism, and often worship sticks, stones, and pieces of 
paper. 1 hey are either barbarous or savage, and cruel in their customs. 

1692. The commerce of Africa is carried on chiefly by land, in conse¬ 
quence of the scarcity of harbors mid streams, and the nature of the coun¬ 
try. The principal trade is in gold dust, ivory, gums, and especially in 
slaves, 'yho are stolen from the weaker tribes, and sold to Europeans on the 
coast. This want of commerce, and the wars made for the slave trade, 
hinder the progress of civilization. 

1693. Knowledge, arts, and manufactures, are generally in a low state j 
and almost the only book known in the half-civilized nations is the Koran, 
or sacred book of Mahomet. In some countries, there are schools where 
the children are taught to read it. 

1694 . In Egypt alone, sc/iooZs of science have been established for those in 
the service of government; but the instruction of the people is neglected. 


NORTHERN AFRICA. 


I. Pol. M. A. — What countries do you find in Africa, N. of the Tropic 
of Cancer ? 


BARBARY. 



(179) Constantina. 

I. 1695. Barbary is a rugged mountain and table land, 
a part of which is represented in the view of Constantina, a 


II. What can you say of tlie people of Abyssinia 1690. What nations of 
Africa are Mahometans i What is their state of civilization .’ 1691. What are 

the religion and civilization of other nations of Africa.^ 1692. What can you say 
of their commerce ? What effect has this on civilization.^ 1693. What is tho 
state of knowledge, arts, and manufactures.^ 1694. In what country of Africa 
are there schools of science,' 
















326 


AFRrOA. 


city of Algiers. It contains Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, ana 
Tripoli, usually called the Barbary States. 

Za Pol. M. A. — Where is Barbary ? What is it ? How is it bounded ? 
What state of Barbary is most western ? Which is the most eastern ? 
Which appears to be the largest? Wliat is the capital of each state ? 

II. 1G9G. The table land of Barbary is bordeied on the West 
by the High Atlas; and its iveslern declivity forms the empire of 
Morocco. The southern declivity is a fertile region of date-palms, 
called Biled-ul-gerid, or “ the land of dates.” 

lf)97. Barbary is ivatered by numerous streams. Its soil pro¬ 
duces abundant and valuable crops, when it is well cultivated; 
and the ■pastures in the liighlands are rich. The climate is hot in 
the lowlands, and temperate in the highlands, yielding some of 
the most valuable prodwrfs of tire Hot and Warm Regions. 

ZZ, Physical Map of South America, Africa, and the Atlantic Ocean .— 
Wliat countries of Europe lie IN. of the table land of Barbary ? What are 
its most northern capes ? What mountains surround it ? Do you find room 
for any large rivers, like the Nile or the Rhine ? — Pol. 3Iap. — Where is 
Biled-ul-gerid? What desert lies S. of Barbary ? What oasis and king¬ 
dom connected with Barbary lie on the S.-E. ? 


IZZ. 1698. The people of Barbary are a mixture of a small number of Turks, 
with Moors, Jews, and Negroes, (formerly slaves,) who inhabit the towns, and of 
Berbers and Arabs, who live in the mountains in villages and tents. All, except 
the Negroes, are of the European race, and are gocertied by the Turks. 

1699. The religion, is Mahometan. The people are extremely ignorant and cor¬ 
rupt. The government is despotic ; and the wandering tribes often rob the villages. 
Industry is thus discouraged ; agriculture is neglected ; and manvfactures, though 
valuable, are not extensive. 

1700. The coast of Barbary is high and rocky, with fine harbors. These states 
once had a large share of foreign commerce; and their piratical ships formerly 
plundered those of all other nations. The caravan trade with the interior of 
Africa, across the desert, is also extensive. 

zzz. In what region do you find Barbary, on the Chart of Climates ? What 
productions may we expect there ? Find on the Moral Chart the government, 
religion, and degree of civilization, of each state. 


1701. The Empire of 
Morocco comprises the 
kingdoms of Morocco, Ta¬ 
blet, and Fez, lying on 
the western declivity of o 
the Atlas Mountains, as in J 
the profile. The soil is 
generally fertile, and the 
prodacts are valuable. But 
the government is oppres¬ 
sive, and industry is discouraged. 





Morocco 


(180) Profile of Morocco. 


ZZZ. How is Morocco bounded ? What is the capital ? How does its surface 
rise on this section, from the W., on the left hand, to the E., on the right ? Is the 
capital on high or low ground? Where is the Spanish fortress of Ceuta? What 
seaport has Morocco on the Straits of Gibraltar? W’hat seaports on the Atlantic? 
What cities in the interior? What islands of the Atlantic are nearest Morocco ? 






IX.V 1*T 


327 


1^02. Ai.giers is oiie of the largest, and was fonnerly one of the most powerful 
of the Barbary States. It has been conquered, and its cities partly colonized, by 
the French i but the greater part is still occupied by the wandering- tribes. 

. 2II. IIovv is Algiers bounded ? Where is the capital ? What other seaport 
has it.^ ^\ hat towns in the interior.^ 

1703. Tunis is the smallest, but the best cultivated and most piopulous of the 
Barbary States. Jts gocei'nment is more just, and vianufacturcs and commerce are in 
a better condition than in the surrounding states. 

Ill* How is Tunis bounded .’ Is it as large a state as Algiers or Morocco ? 
to U capital. What gulf on the East ? What large islands are nearest 

1704. Tripoli has a government and people more disposed to imiirovenient than 
any other state in Barbary. The soil is fertile on the coast, but barren in the in¬ 
terior. It has a great deal of commerce with the interior and with foreign 
countries. 

1705. Barca is a small but rich table land, once celebrated for its productions, 
but now inhabited b}' wandering herdsmen, subject to Tripoli. 

1706. Fezzan and Gadames are oases in the deserts South of Tripoli, which 
are important only as halting-places and markets for the caravans. 

JII. How is Tripoli bounded? In what part of it is Barca ? Where is the 
capital ? What other towns are there ? Which way from Tripoli is Fezzan * 
What is its capital ? Where is Gadames ? 


EGYPT. 



(181) Cairo and the Pyramids. 


I, 1707. Egypt has been a celebrated country from an- 
cien' times; and its pyramids and ruined temples are some 
of the most wonderful works of man. 

I, Pol. M. S. A. and Af. — How is Egypt bounded? On what nver 
does it lie ? What is the capital ? 

SI. 1708. Egypt lies on the lower terrace and delta of the Nile. 

Its soil is formed and enriched by the mud left in its annual floods; i 
and it is one of the most fertile countries in the world- 






















328 


AFiUCA, 


1709. The climate is hot in summer, but delightful in winter. 
Rain is very rare; and E^pt is watered chiefly by the Nile, and 
its canals and floods, [see C414 and 417.) It produces wheat and 
flax, as well as tlie plants of the Hot Regions. 

IIX. 1710- Agriculture is well conducted- Manufuctures are in a low state; 
but its trade is iinportanL Nubia and Sennaar are subject to E^pt. 

III. Has the Nile one or many mouths ? What seaports lie nearest the prin¬ 
cipal mouths of the Nile ? What large seaport in the north-western f»art of Egypt ? 
IIow wide is the valley of the Nile? {See If 1674.) What is the country on each 
side of it ? Where are most of the towns ? Where is Siout ? What places above 
Siout ? What port at the head of the Red Sea ? What other port on this sea ? 

MIDDLE REGIONS OF AFRICA. 

la Pol. M. Af, — What countries lie in the middle regions of Africa, 
between the Tropic of Cancer and tlie southern table land, or the moun¬ 
tains called Jibel Kumri ? Which are in the eastern part ? What general 
name is given to the western coast ? What to Central Africa ? 

NUBIA. 

1. 1711. The general name of Nnhia is now given to 
the whole region extending from Egypt to Abyssinia, of 
which Nubia and Sennaar are the principal divisions. It 
abounds in deserts, and the sands are often raised by the 
wind in clouds and pillars, which move with great swiftness, 
and sometimes bury travellers- 

I. Pol. M. Af. — How is Nubia bounded? Sennaar? What are the 
chief towns ? 

II. 1712. The soil of JVubia is fertile only in the valley of the 
Nile. The climate is intensely hot; and the products are those of 
the Warm and Hot Regions. The people are barbarous and fero¬ 
cious, divided into many tribes and small nations, all of which are 
now subject to Egypt. 

III. What towns of Nubia and Sennaar lie on the Nile ? What port on the 
Red Sea ? {lot. 19‘’.) ( Through this port, many go on their pilgrimage to Mecca.) 


ABYSSINIA. 



W. (182) Profile of Abyssinia, from West to East. E. 

I. 1713. Abvssinia is a rugged mountain land, crossed 
by two ranges of mountains, whose peaks are covered with 







CENTRAL AFRICA. 329 

perpetual snow. They enclose the tabh land of Gondar, 
with the capital, and the Lake Tsana or Dembea. 

Pol.M.Af. — How is Abyssinia bounded? What is its capital? 
What is its surface, and what mountains cross it ? (U 1713, and profile.) 

Ill Exercises on the profile. — How is Abyssinia situated ? How do you 
ascend and descend, and over what countries do you pass, in crossing Abys¬ 
sinia from Hast to West, or from right to left on tlie profile ? 

12. 1714. The surface of Abyssinia is rough, hut the valleys 
are fertile. The climate is intensely hot in the sandy lowlands on 
the coast, but temperate or cold in the highlands. 

III. 17J 5. The people profess to be Christians; but are cruel, ignorant, and 
barbarous, and are accustomed to eat raw flesh as a delicacy. The country is di¬ 
vided into several states, which are often at war with each other. Arts and man¬ 
ufactures are in a low state, and there is very little commerce. 

17ir>. Shoa in the South, and Ainhara and Tigre in the North, are the princi¬ 
pal states. The Country of the Gauuas, which lies South of Abyssinia, is in¬ 
habited by barbarous and ferocious nations, who have conquered some provinces. 

III. What branches of the Nile rise in Abyssinia.^ What lake does it con¬ 
tain.^ What seaport on an island near the coast in the Red Sea? What other 
towns ? Where is Shoa? The Country of the Gallas ? (TT 1710.) 

CENTRAL AFRICA. 



(183) Caravan in the Desert of Sahara. 

I. 1717. The most remarkable object in Centred Africa 
is the Great Desert of Sahara. A number of oases are 
scattered through it, inhabited or frequented by wandering 
tribes of Bedouin robbers, who often attack the caravans of 
merchants which cross it. Travellers sometimes perish, 
with their camels, for want of water or provisions. 

I, Pol. M. Af. — How is the Sahara bounded ? What can you say of 
it t (IT 1717.) What are the principal oases in the eastern part ? What iu 















AFRICA. 


33(> 


the centre ? What in the western part 7 What places are connected bj 
the paths of caravans ? 

SOUDAN. 

I, 1718. That part of Central Africa which lies South 
of the desert, between Nubia and Senegambia, is called 
Soudan, or the “ black country.” It is divided into numer¬ 
ous petty kingdoms, governed by despots, who consider them¬ 
selves the greatest of monarchs, and oblige all who come 
near them to fall on their faces. 

I, Pol. M. Af. — Where does Soudan lie ? How is it bounded ? (On 
ih^ West by Senegambia.) 

II. 1719. Soudan is surrounded by deseiis and highlands, except 
on the West, and does not reach the ocean in any part. It is there¬ 
fore very little known ; but it appears to he a region of elevated 
terraces, which are well watered and fertile, especially around 
Lake Tchad. 

1720. Its climate is very hot, and unhealthy to strangers. It pro¬ 
duces all the plants of the Equatorial Region, and exports gums, 
gold, ivory, and slaves, to Northern Africa. 

1 721. The people are chiefly Mahometans, and are less barbarous than 
those who trade principally in slaves, on the coast. They have many large eitie.-!, 
and understand some of the arts veiy well. We know little of most states of 
Soudan, except their names. 

IXI. What states do you find in the eastern part of Soudan ? What states 
are there around Lake Tchad ? Wliat on the Niger ? What are the principal 
towns on the Niger ? What towns in the central part of Soudan ? In the east¬ 
ern part ? 

WEST AFRICA. 



(184) Slave-Catching in Africa. 

I. 1722. The western part of the Middle Regions of 
Africa, extending from the Sahara to the Atlantic Ocean 




























SENEGAMBIA. -NORTHERN OR UPPER GUINEA. 331 


and the Gulf of Guinea, is usually called West Africa. 
It is most remarkahle for the cruel trade in slaves, who are 
stolen from their homes, and marched to the coast in files, or 
colHes, tastened to each other, to be sold to white men. 

I. Fol. M. Aj. — How is West Africa bounded? (If 1722.) What is 
remarkable here ? What country do you lind in the nortliern part ? What 
country on the Gulf of Guinea ? 

SENE GAMBIA. 

Ib 17*23. Senegambia is a fertile lowland plain, forming 
the basin of the Senegal and Gambia Rivers. Its streams 
scarcely fiow, on account of the datness of the surface ; and 
spread into unhealthy lakes and .swamps. 

Sn Pol. M. Af. — How is Seneg'inibia bounded ? What streams has it ? 
(T[ 1723.) What towns do you find ? 

1721. T7ic is intensely hot; and Senegambia is rich 

in tlie plants of the Equatorial Region. It has forests of trees pro¬ 
ducing tlie most valuable gums, such as copal, guaiacum, and gum 
Arabic. 

I2I. 17 25. It is inhabited cliieily by the Jalofl’, Foulah, Felloop, and Mandingo 
tribes, who live in towns, and are soiriswliat acquainted \vith arts and manufac¬ 
tures. There are many small states, little known to us. 

NORTHERN OR UFEER GUINEA. 

I, 17*26. Northern Guinea embraces the country north 
of the Gulf of Guinea, from the valley of the Niger to the 
Atlantic. It is traversed by the Kong Mountains, and lies 
in part on their southern declivity. 

Pol. M. Af .— Where is Northern Guinea? How is it bounded? 
What mountains has it ? C!] 1726.) 

SZ. 1727. 'Hie coast has been divided, according to its most im¬ 
portant exports, into the Grain Coast, which received its name from 
grains or seeds resembling pepper, formerly exported; the Ivory 
(Zoast; the Gold Coast; and the Slave Coast. 

j 728. JMortheni Guinea is a fertile region. It embraces the delta 
of the Niger on the East, and has a valuable commerce. 

ZS* VvTiat arc the divisions of the coast of Northern Guinea ? Describe 
the situ'ition of each, v'/liat mountains pass tlirougli it ? 'What river on 
the coast ? 

ZXZ. 1729. The interior is divided into a number of kingdoms, of whiclj Ashan- 
tae, Dahomey, and Dcnin, are the most powerful. The fort of Elmina is occupied 
by the Dutch, that of Cape Coast Castle by the British, and that of Christiansborg 
by the Danes ; and each nation has other smaller forts and settlements, for the 
purpose of carrying on trade. 

Ill, What kingdoms does Northern Guijiea contain ? What are the capitals 
and principal townsWhat forts and settlements of Europeans on the coast? 
(IT 1729.) 




332 


AFRICA. 


FOREIGN COLONIES. 

XII. 1730. 77tc French have colonies at St. Louis and Goree, and the 
French, British, Dutch, and Danes, have forts on the coast of Guinea, 
merely for trading. 

1731. The British have established a colony at Sierra Leone, for Africans 
taken from slave ships, who are set at liberty. Several thousands are now 
collected here, in flourishing villages, with schools and churches 

1732. Libkria is a colony between Sencgarnbia and Guinea, formed by 
free colored persons from the L'nited States, aided b^ American Coloniza¬ 
tion Societies. It extends about 300 miles, from Cape Palmas to Cape 
Mount. 

1733. It is increasing in population, and embraces a number of flourish¬ 
ing towns and villages. Laics and government, schools and churches, are 
establi.shed 5 and the inhabitanti arc industrious and successful in agricul¬ 
ture and trade. 

III. What towns and settlements are there in l^cnsgajnbiaWhat native 
states and tribes do you tind.^ What American colony on the southern border? 
What towns and settlements do you lind there? 

SOUTHERN REGIONS OF AFRICA. 



(185) Animals of SoiULirn Africa. 


1. 1734, 1 he iboutluni IZig'fons oj' AJricci rvibracr the 
southern table land in the centre; South AlVsc;!, lyiinr 
South of the Tropic of Capricorn ; the Eastern Coast"; 
and tlie Western Coast, which is called South Guinea. 

1735. The loivlaneh and terraces that have been explored 
on the eastern and locstern coasts, have a fertile soil, and a 
hot climate, which produce the richest vegetation. They 
have also thick forests, abounding with beautiful as well as 
ferocious animals. 







JJASTERN COAST OF AFRICA. 


333 


SOUTHERN OR LOWER GUINEA. 

I. 173G. The Western Coast of Africa, from the valley 
of the Niger to South Africa, is called Southern or Lower 
Guinea. It is controlled chiefly by the Portuguese, who coi>- 
ceal their knowledge of the country from other nations. 

X. Pol. M. Af, — How is Southern Guinea bounded? What are its 
chief towns ? 

II. 1737. Southern Guinea lies on tlie teiTaces of tlie great table 
land, and has every variety of surface. 7%e soil appears to be 
generally very fertile. 

1738. The lowland of the coast is very hot, and unliea?tl>y for 
strangers ; the terraces huvQ a milder climate ; but all abound in the 
richest plants of tlie Equatorial Region. Rain is uncommon; but 
dews are abundant. 

ECX. 1739. The people are kept in harbarisin bj' tlie slave trade ; and they 
mingle the Roman Catholic religion with tlieir own Raganism. 

1719. I.ike otli.T parts of .Africa, Southern Guinea ii divided into numerous small 
states, of which Loango, Congo, Angola, and Renguela are the principal; but 
the Purtugueac claim possession of the greater part of the coast. 

>:r ’ (rtt native states in Boutlierii Guinea.’ In what order do they lie, 
begainingat the .N'ortii.’ What are the principal towns.’ 


EABTtRN COAST OF AFRICA. 



I. 1741. The Eastern Coast of Africa is little known. 
It is governed by the Portuguese, South of Cape Delgado, 
and by the Arabian sultaii of Muscat, North of this cape. 
Here, as in most parts of Africa, lions are so numerous as 
to be the dread of man, and are often hunted. 









334 


AFRICA. 


I, Pol. M. of Af. — Oil v/lmt ocean does the eastern coast of Africa lie ? 
What can you say of it ? (fl 1711.) Who govern it ? What animals are 
numerous f What states and towns do 3 mu find ? 

II. 1742. The Eastern Coast of Africa is uiiliealthy on the low¬ 
lands, and often sandy and barren. It rises in terraces, and varies 
exceedingly in its surface, soil, and climate. It has the most valu¬ 
able productions of tlie Equatorial Region. 

I£. What large Island is near the eastern coast of Africa ? Wijat chan¬ 
nel separates them ? What rivers do you find on this coast ? What lakes 1 
What mountains in the interior ? 

Il£e t743. The people appear to be of tlie Arab or Malay race, but are generally 
in a state of barbarism. They have considerable commeree with the Portuguese, 
and with the Arabians. 

1744. This coast is divided into a number of petty kingdoms, of which we know 
little, except the names. The Imam or Sultan of Muscat, who has possessions 
here, is the most powerful prince, and has a considerable navy. 

TZ^m What kingdoms and states do you find on the Eastern Coast of Africa? 
What are the principal towns ? What small islands near the coast? 

SOUTH AFRICA. 



(187) Hottentot Villages. 

I. 1745. The Hottentots of South Africa live in huts 
built of twigs and mud, which are generally arranged in a 
circle. They use oxen for riding, as well as for draft. 

Sb a/, yl/.—' How is South Africa bounded ? ( N.'C *; 17M.) What 

countries does it coutun ? Wliat can you say of the Hottentots ? 

II. 174(1. Soidh Africa occupies the southern extremity of Af¬ 
rica, and the terraces of the great table land. 27te loivlands are 
generally well watered and fertile on the South and East; but the 
ierraers are generally dry. 















335 


COLONY OF THE CAPE, 


1747. Tfui cliniaie is mild, but variable, and produces tlie plants 
of the Hot and Warm Regions, but is so liable to drought, that 
the inhabitants subsist more by pasturage tlian agriculture. 

ZII. 1748. Tke Hottentots of South J^frica, and cspecialfy the Bushmen, (Bosjes- 
men, or wild Hottentots,) are among the most ignorant and savage tribes known. 
The Cjffres, on the eastern coast, appear like Arabs in their form, and are brave, 
intelligent, and far less barbarous. The Boshuanas, North of the Caffres, are a 
settled people, and have a number of large towns and villages. 

1749. Christian missionaries have been sent to these tribes, and have succeeded 
in leading some of them to Christianity and civilization. 

Z££. Where is Caliraria i Where is the country of the Boshuanas ? (IT 1748.) 
Of the Hottentots ? What towns are known to us.^ What colon}' at the South? 

COLONY OF THE CAPE. 


I. 1750. The Colony of the Cape is possessed by the Brit¬ 
ish, and inhabited by the Dutch and British, and the Hot¬ 
tentots, who were formerly slaves. It is remarlcable for the 
Table Mountain, a flat-topped mountain, near Cape Town, 
the capital of the colony. 

XE. 1751. This colony has a great deal of fertile land, chiejly 
occupied, as pasturage, but furnishing other productions of tlie Warm 
Regions. Most of tJie inhabitants reside on the lowland, a fertile 
plain covered with grass and trees. 

ZI. Where is the Colony of the Cape ? How is it bounded ? What 
mountains in it ? What rivers ? What bays ? What is the capital, and 
where ? ^Vhat other places do you find '/ 

AFRICAN ISLANDS. 

I. 1752. Africa is encircled by a number of islands, of 
which Madagascar is the largest. The rest are generally 
small, and volcanic in their character. In 1811, a volcano 
broke out in the sea, near the Azores, and formed a new 
island, which afterwards disappeared. 

I. Pol. M. Af. — What islands are there E. of Africa 1 What groups of 
islands N-'w. of Africa ? 


ISLANDS EAST OF AFRICA. 

ZX« 1753. Madagascar is one of the largest islands in the 
world, about equal to France in extent. It is traversed by lofty 

mountains, containing valuable . ,7 4 

1754. The coasts are bordered by fertile, well-watered valleys and 
nlains, witli all the products of the Equatorial Regions; and the 
fnliabitants are Malays, or Arabs partly civilized. The interior 
is rugged and mountainous, and tho inhabitants are savage. 

TTT 1755. Madagascar is dividedpnto numerous states, many of which have 
been united in one empire. A late king introduced schools and ChnstianUy ; but 
the present queen persecutes all Christians and their institutions 

15 





336 


AFRICA. 


III. In what zone is Madagascar ? What are its capes ? What towns do 
you find ? What small islands lie East of Madagascar? What two groups North 
and North-East? What island near Cape Guardafui? 

1756. Bourbon and Mauritius are mountainous islands, but contain much fer* 
tile land, and furnish valuable productions. 

Bourbon belongs to the French, and contains a volcano which burns continually. 
Mauritius belongs to the British, but is also called the Isle of France. Socotra is 
remarkable for its aloes. 

ISLANDS SOUTH OF AFRICA. 

H. 1757. Amsterdam and St. Paul’s Island are resorted to 
for the seal fishery, and the barren rocks of Tristan d’Acunha 
for fresh water. Kerguelen’s Land is sometimes called the Isl¬ 
and of Desolation. 

II. M. of World. — What is the direction of each of these islands 
from Africa ? 

ISLANDS WEST OF AFRICA. 

XI. 1758. The islands West of Africa enjoy a pleasant climate, 
though they are situated in hot regions. They are almost all vol¬ 
canic in their character. 

1759. The Azores, Madeiras, and Canaries, are fertile, and 
export wine and fruit in abundance. The Cape Verd Islands 
are more barren, and only produce cotton, and export salt, which 
is formed by the heat of the sun in the lagoons of sea water. They 
are most remarkable for tlie lofty Peak of Teneriffe. 

III. 1760. The Canaries belong to Spain, and the other islands mentioned belong 
to Portugal, together with the rocky islands of St. Matthew’s and Ascension, 
S. of Cape Verd. Angra, Santa Cruz, and Porto Praya, are the principal toions. 

17C1. St. Helena is a lofty rock, accessible only by one chasm, on which 
Jamestown, the capital, is built. It was celebrated as the prison of Napoleon, but 
is best known as a place of refreshment for ships. 

III. Pol. M. are the principal islands of the Azores? What 

country in Europe is nearest to them? What are the chief islands of the Ma¬ 
deiras ? The Canaries ? The Cape Verd Islands ? What countries of Africa are 
nearest to them ? Which are nearest to America? (See Map of the Atlantic Ocean.) 
Where does St. Helena lie ? 

xzz. cities OF AFRICA. 

1762. A large part of Africa is in a state of barbarism, and therefore con- 
tains few large cities, or even considerable towns, in comparison with Eu¬ 
rope and Asia. These are chiefly in North Africa; and most of them are 
greatly inferior to the chief cities of Europe and Asia in commerce, manu¬ 
factures, and wealth, as well as in population. 

1763. They are built like those of Asia, (p. 318,) and are inferior to the 
poorest in Europe in their appearance, on account of the narrowness, irreg¬ 
ularity, and filthiness of the streets. Even in Cairo and Fez, the streets are 
often so narrow, that two camels cannot go abreast. 

1764. Cairo exceeds any other city of Africa in magnitude and splendor. 
Its mosques and tombs are neat, and often elegant; but its general appear¬ 
ance is miserable. It is resorted to for trade by merchants from the whole 
of Western Asia, and the interior of Africa. Alexandria is the chief place 
of trade between Europe and Egypt. It is a city of considerable extent, 
and now quite flourishing. 



CITIES OF AFRICA. 


337 


♦i, j coast q/'Barbary are built, like many others on 

the Mediterranean, on declivities rising from the water. Most of them are 
lortined, and are places of some trade. They have more resemblance to 
those of Europe than any others in Africa. TVipoli has broad, straight 
streets, and is superior to most cities of Barbary in beauty. Tunis is situ¬ 
ated on a salt lake connected with the sea, a few miles from the ruins of 
ancient Carthage. 

1766. Algiers was formerly noted as a nest of pirates, and has been the 
place of slavery of many Americans. It is now possessed by the French. 
Constantiiyi is an ancient and large city, remarkable for its situation on the 
top of a high rock, which is only accessible by a bridge. 

1767. Morocco has lost much of its former importance. It is about twelve 
miles from the loot of Mount Atlas, on a fertile plain, in the midst of a 
forest of palm-trees. Fez is the chief resort of the Arabs of tlie desert for 
trade. Tayigier and Mogadore are places of some trade. 

1768. In the Middlf, Regions of Afkica, the towns and cities usually 
consist of low, mud-walled huts, with conical roofs, thatched with leaves or 
straw. They are spread over a great extent of ground, and rather resemble 
a camp than a city. They are often surrounded with a low wall, which is 
also built of earth or mud. The palace of the king is usually only a collec¬ 
tion of huts surrounded by a wall. 

1769. Sego, the capital of the kingdom of Bambarra, is a city of consid¬ 
erable size, its mosques are numerous. 

1770. During the late discoveries in Africa, a number of large cities were 
found on the Niger, surrounded by mud walls, and containing from 10,000 
to 30,000 inhabitants. The principal in the interior are Tombuct-oo, the 
centre of trade between Bombay and Soudan; Angomou, the largest city 
of Bornou; Kano, the chief commercial city of Soudan 5 and Sackatoo, 
the capital of the warlike nation of the Fellatahs. 

1771. The most important cities on the Niger, between Tombuctoo and 
the Gulf of Guinea, are Yaouri, Boossa, Funda, and Eboe. Yaouri is 
from 20 to 30 miles round, with high walls, and entered by eight gates. The 
houses are of clay, two stories high. 

1772. Cobbe is the principal town of Darfoor, and a place of extensive 
commerce, chiedy inhabited by merchants. Gondar, the capital of Abys¬ 
sinia, is situated on a hill, surrounded by a deep valley. Like other towns 
of Abyssinia, it has several Christian churches. 

1773. Melinda is a large, handsome town. Its houses are built of stone, 
and many of them are magnificent. St. Salvador, the capital of Congo, 
has a number of Roman Catholic churches, and many Portuguese inhabit¬ 
ants. The towns of Northern Guinea are not well known. Coomassie, the 
capital of Ashantee, is said to be regularly built, with neat cane huts. 

1774. In South Africa, the kraals or villages of the natives are usually 
composed of huts formed of twigs or branches of trees, plastered with clay, 
and placed in a circle, around an enclosure which contains their cattle. 
There are a number of villages of natives, collected around the missionary 
stations of South Africa. Some of them present a handsome appearance, 
and have many of the improvements of civilized life. Latakoo, or Litakoo, 
is the largest native town yet kno\NTi in South Africa. 

1775. Tananarivo is a large, well-built, inland to^vn of Madagascar, and 
the capital of one of its principal kingdoms. 

1776. European Settlements. — The French, Portuguese, and Spanish have 
a number of settlements on the coast of Africa for the purpose of trade, 
especially in slaves. Mozambique is the capital of the Portuguese settle¬ 
ments on the coast of Zanguebar, and Loanda on the coast of Angola. 
The chief French settlements are at Goree and Algiers. 

1777. These settlements are usually mere forts. The European towns 





338 


OCEANICA. 


of Africa and its islands are built like those of Europe. Elmina is the 
chief settlement of the Dutch on the coast of Guinea, and Cape Coast 
Castle of the English. 

1778. Cape Town is the only considerable town in the Colony of the 
Cape. It is important chiefly as a place of refreshment for ships, on East 
India voyages. Two thirds of the inhabitants are colored persons. 

1779. The towns in the colony of Sierra Leone, of which Freetown is the 
principal, are pleasant and neatly built. Most of the inhabitants are Afri¬ 
cans of various nations, taken from slave ships, and brought here to be in¬ 
structed in religion and the arts of civilized life. Monrovia, the capital of 
the American colony of Liberia, is a flourishing town, situated on Cape 
Mesurado. 


TRAVELS ON THE MAP OF AFRICA. 

1780. Begin at Suez on the Red Sea, and travel around the coast of Africa, 
to Morocco, mentioning the principal kingdoms and cities you pass, and 
what you know of them. 

Next sail along the coast of the Mediterranean to Egypt j go up the 
Nile to Abyssinia, and through Soudan, and across the Sahara, to Barbary ; 
and give an account of what you find on the way. 

Now travel over Africa on the Moral Chart 3 mention the government, 
religion, and state of civilization, of each country 3 and see if you can find 
a Christian and civilized nation. 


OCEANICA. 

I, 1781. OcEANicA comprises the islands which lie South- 
East and East from Asia, and is divided into Malaysia, or 
the Indian Archipelago, Australia, and Polynesia. The 
number of these islands is almost countless; and their size, 
form, and character, are very various. 

I. Map of Oceanica. — What does Oceanica comprise ? What divisions 
do you find on the map ? Which two are the most western ? Where are 
the islands of Polynesia ? What are some of the largest islands in Malay¬ 
sia ? In Australia ? Are there any large islands in Polynesia ? 

II. 1782. The islands of Oceanica vaip in size, from New Hol¬ 
land, which is sometimes called a continent, to the rocks inhabited 
only by sea birds. The large islands contain high mountains, con¬ 
siderable streams, and every variety of surface. Of the small isl¬ 
ands, many are single mountains, rising above the sea; and others 
are only low beds of coral rock, covered with a thin soil. 

1783. Many islands of Oceanica are volcanic; and the range of 
volcanoes which begins in Kamschatka and Japan, is continued, 
through the Philippine and other islands of Malaysia, to tlie Mo¬ 
lucca Islands. From the Moluccas, one branch passes JVbrth-fVest 
through Java and Sumatra; and another branch extend South-East 
through New Guinea, and the small Australian islands, to New 
Zealand. 

1784. The southern portion of Australia extends into the Tern- 


MALAYSIA. 


339 



perate Zone. But the greater part of Oceanica lies in the Torrid 
Zone, and has the climate of the Equatorial Region, rendered 
milder by the ocean around. 

1785. The plants and animals of Malaysia resemble those of 
Southern Asia. In Polynesia the bread-fruit, the yam, and the 
taro root, arc cultivated for food instead of rice ; and the only 
animals are the dog and the hog. The plants and animals of Aus¬ 
tralia are unlike those of any other part of the world. 

X1I> 1786. The people of Oceanica are generally of the Malay race, and their 
languages are very similar. They arc intelligent and active in their dispositions, 
but in different states of civilization, and varying in their character, from unusual 
mildness to great cruelty. 

1787. The Papuans of Australia resemble the Afric.an race in some respects, and 
the Malay race in others ; hut in regard to civilization, they are among the most 
degraded and savage of mankind. 

MALAYSIA. 


(188) Animals of Malaysia. 

I. 1788. 31alaysia has the large and fierce animals of 
the Torrid Zone, such as the rhinoceros, the croco^lile, the 
boa serpent, and the tiger; and it is only in some of these 
islands that the orang-outang is found. 

21. 1789. TVie islands of Malaysia generally consist of table 
lands or mountains in the interior, often containing volcanoes, and 
of level, fertile lowlands on the coast. Their climate is that of 
the Equatorial Region, rendered milder by the sea around them; 
and their productions embrace the most valuable plants of this re¬ 
gion, especially the finest spices. 

1790. These islands also contain valuable mines of gold, copper, 















340 


OCEANICA. 


tin, and other metals, and of diamonds and precious stones, which 
furnish important exports. 

II. Pol. M. Asia. — What are the most northern islands of Malaysia ? 
Which is the largest of the Philippine Islands ? What two large islands 
lie South of these ? What small islands E. of Celebes, usually called the 
Moluccas or Spice Islands ? Which way from Borneo are the Sunda 
Isles, Sumatra, and Java? What small islands near them? What small 
islands E. of Java? Which is the largest island in Malaysia? Which is 
the most western ? 

III. 1791. The people of Malaysia are generally of the Malay race. Those who 
are settled in towns on the coast are intelligent, and skilful in many arts and man¬ 
ufactures, and extensively engaged in commerce. The tribes of the interior are 
little known, and many of them are savage. 

1792. Most of these islands have European settlements, nearly all occupied by the 
Dutch, who claim possession of tlid principal islands. 

1793. Borneo is the largest island in the world except New Holland. It is 
watered and fertilized by numerous streams from the mountains in the interior. 
It is remarkable for its mines of gold and diamonds, for the orang-outang, which 
so much resembles man, and, it is said, for the absence of all beasts of prey. 

1794. Celebes is remarkable for being divided into peninsulas; which brings 
all its inhabitants within the reach of commerce and partial civilization. 

1795. Sumatra is the largest island of Malaysia except Borneo ; and the prod- 
nets of its soil and mines are very valuable. 

1796. Java is the fourth of these islands in size, and contains the largest Eu¬ 
ropean colony, at Batavia. The Dutch control the greater part of the island. 
They also possess the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and derive great wealth from 
them. 

1797. The Manillas, or Philippine Islands, belong to Spain. Their productions, ex¬ 
ports, and commerce, are of great value. 

AUSTRALIA. 



(!8'J) Animals of Australia. 

I. 1798. Australia ennsists of the principal island or 
main land of Australia, generally called New Holland, and 















NORTH AUSTRALIAN ISLANDS. 


341 


of the islands around it. The native inhahitants are chiefly 
Papuans, 1787,) and are the most savage people known, 
living in huts of bark, which sometimes float on the water, 
or even sleeping on trees. Some tribes are even without 
clothes, boats, or implements for hunting or fishing, and 
feed on fruits, insects, worms, or shell-fish”from the shore. 

Xa M. of O. — In what direction from Asia is Australia? Which is the 
largest island, or main land of Australia? What .arge islands North of it? 
What one South ? What large islands South-East of it ? What groups of 
islands North-East of it ? 

NORTH AUSTRALIAN ISLANDS. 

XE. 1 V 99 . Pafiia or JVew Guinea, JVew Britain, and other isl¬ 
ands North and North-East of Australia, are inhabited by fero¬ 
cious Papuans, and they have never been explored. 

IdOO. All these islands lie within the Torrid Zone, and have its 
climate and productions. JVew Guinea is remarkable for the beau¬ 
tiful bird of paradise, whose feathers are exported. 

NEW HOLLAND. 

I, 1801. Neic Holland, or Australia Proper, is the largest 
island in the world, nearly equal to Europe in extent, but 
very thinly inhabited. It lies on the opposite side of the 
world from the United States. It has day when we have 
night, and summer when we have winter. Its plants and 
animals are unlike those of all other parts of the globe. 
Some of its quadrupeds go upon two feet, and others have 
the bill of a bird. Its swans are black, and some of its 
fruits have the stone on the outside. 

!■ M. of O. — How is New Holland Imunded ? What are' the chief di- . 
visions ? What towns do you find ? What is remarkable here ? 

II. 1802. A range of highlands runs alon^ the eastern coast, 
called the Blue Mountains, which terminates, in the South, in the 
White Mountains, covered with perpetual snow. The declivity 
towards the sea is short and steep ; and the rivers do not admit of 
much navigation. 

1803. These highlands descend by terraces towards the interior, 
which appears to be a vast region of steppes. The land in the inte¬ 
rior has so little descent, that the rivers stagnate in separate swamps 
or lakes, during the dry season, and leave the rest of the country 
a desert. 

1804. The soil of New Holland is in many parts fertile ; and it 
has the climate and productions of all the regions from the Equa¬ 
torial to the Temperate; but the whole country suffers from the 
want of water. 





342 


UCKAMICA-^ 


1805. In the southern parts the temperature is mild, and the plants 
of Europe flourish; but all parts are subject to excessive drought, 
which often destroys the harvests; and the farmers subsist chi^y by 
pasturage. 

II, What mountains do you find in New Holland 1 Where are they ? 
What rivers? Which way do they flow? What gulfs and bays around 
New Holland ? Has it any peninsulas ? 

III, 1806. JVeio Holland was first settled by criminals sent from Great Britain 
to Botany Bay, but is now colonized by respectable British emigrants, who have 
formed settlements on all the coasts. Arts and manufactures are beginning to flour¬ 
ish ; and the commerce of New Holland is considerable. 

III. Between what latitudes does New Holland lie ? In what zones ? What 
circle crosses it? What plants may be expected to grow there ? What divisions 
do you find, and how situated ? \Vhich is the most northern colony ?» 

VAN DIEMEN’S LAND. 

I. 1807. Van Diemen’s Land is a large and mountain'- 
ous island, abounding in lakes, streams, and excellent har¬ 
bors. Its soil is generally fertile. Its climate is more tem¬ 
perate and healthy than that of New Holland. Its produc-- 
tions are like those of the Northern United States. 

I. M. of O. — Where is Van Diemen’s Land ? What strait separates it 
from New Holland ? What towns do you find on it ? Describe it. (TT 1807.) 

III. 1808. The natives are more savage 'than those of New Holland. The 
white population is respectable and improving. Agriculture is well conducted, and 
the towns and villages are thriving. 

1809. New Zealand enjoys a fine temperate climate, like that of France. The 
people are tall and well formed, and more civilized tlian any others in Australia. 
Christian missions are now established among them. 

POLYNESIA. 

1. 1810. Polynesia consists of countless small islands, 
scattered over the ocean like the stars in the sky, some- 
times single, and sometimes collected in ranges or clusters. 
Some are high ?nou7itains, and others are low coral rocks. 

I. M. of O. — What are the chief groups of islands in Polynesia N. of 
the equator ? What S. of the equator ? Which are some of the most 
eastern islands ? 

II, 1811. The islands of Polynesia have a delightful climate. 
'They produce the bread-fruit tree and the taro root; and these, 
with the flesh of the hog and the dog, furnish the chief food of 
the natives. 

II. To what latitude N. and S. do the islands of Polynesia extend ? 
In what zone do they lie ? What groups of islands are nearest to Asia, N. 
of the equator ? What to N. America ? To S. America ? Which are the 


ISLANDS NORTH AND SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR. 343 


most northern islands named '! The most eastern 1 The most southern ? 
The most western ? 

XII. 1812. The 7iatives of Poljmesia are more mild and polite than most bar¬ 
barous nations, but dishonest and corrupt in their character. Human sacrifices, 
and the destruction of infants, were formerly general among them. 

ISLANDS NORTH*OF THE EQUATOR. 

SI. 1813. The Pelew Islands, and the Carolines, are re¬ 
markable for their fine climate and delicious fruits. 

1814. The Ladrones, or Isles of Robbers, received their name 
from the piracy practised by the people. 

1815. The Sandwich Islands are the most important group 
North of the equator. Hawaii, or Owhyhee, is the largest, and 
almost as large as the state of Connecticut. Its mountains rise to 
the height of 18,000 feet, and contain Kilauea, one of the most re¬ 
markable volcanoes in the world. These islands are the resort of 
ships engaged in the whale and seal fisheries, in the Pacific Ocean; 
and they furnish large quantities of sandal wood for tlie Chinese 
trade. 

III. 1816. The natives practise agriculture, and exhibit much ingenuity in 
some vianufactures. They have improved in the arts by intercourse with Euro¬ 
peans, and have adopted the Christian religion. The king has formed a small 
vacy, and carries on a profitable trade with foreigners. His palace, mode of living, 
and dress, are in the European style. A large part of the population now attend 
the schools established by American missionaries. 

ISLANDS SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR. 

SL 1817. The Friendly Islands, including the Fejee, and 
several other detaclifed islands, are low coral islands, of which 
Tonp^ataboo is the largest. 

1813. The Navigator’s Isles are the most important and fer¬ 
tile group yet discovered in Southern Polynesia. The natives are 
uncommonly tall and stout, and very ferocious; but they are in¬ 
dustrious, and ingenious in some of their manufactures. 

18P>. The Marquesas are said to be distinguished for the 
beauty of the people. They are now possessed by the French. 

18’20. The Society Isles, of which Tajiiti (Otiheite) is the 
largest, are fertile and beautiful, but none of them are so large as 
Hawaii. These islands present the first example of a nation convert¬ 
ed to Christianity in modern times by the labors of Christian mis¬ 
sionaries. The people are now as much distinguislied by their regard 
for religion and morality as they once were for idolatry and im¬ 
morality. They have schools, churches, and a system of good laws, 
and are advancing in knowledge and arts. 

II- R of O. — What are the principal of the .Sandwich Islands ? ( Hon¬ 

olulu 'the capital, is on Ihe Idand of Oahu.) What are the chief of the .So- 
cietv'Islands ? What others do you find ? Wliat islands are named among 

" 15 ^ 




344 


OCEAxViCA. 


the Marquesas 1 Where is Pitcairn’s Island, which was settled by English 
sailors and Tahitians ? 


Eli. CITIES OF OCEANICA. 

1821. The native towns of Oceanica generally consist of huts of bamboo 
or cane, thatched with leaves. They are often removed, or destroyed by 
fire, as in Southern Asia, and entirely deserted, in a few months. 

1822. The settlements of Europeans resemble the cities of Europe, but 
sometimes contain fine buildings, and palaces, mingled with native huts. 

1823. Batavia, the Dutch capital of Java, and of the Dutch possessions, 
is a city of the first rank, and felie largest and most important in Oceanica, 
with extensive commerce. Its streets are lined with trees, and traversed 
by canals, like those of the cities of Holland. Banjermasshig, in Borneo, 
and Macassar, in Celebes, are chiefly important as the residence of the 
Dutch governors of these islands. 

1824. Manilla, the capital of the Philippine Islands, is a large, well-built 
city, surrounded with walls, and has extensive commerce. 

1825. Acheen, the capital of the chief native kingdom in Sumatra, con¬ 
sists of 8000 bamboo houses, built on posts, in the midst of a forest of co¬ 
coa-nut, banana, and other tropical trees. It is traversed by a river, covered 
with small vessels, engaged in active commerce. 

1826. Sydney the chief town and centre of trade for Australia, has one 
of the finest harbors in the world, and is important for commerce, and the 
whale fishery. It contains two colleges and numerous schools. 

1827. Hobart s Tonm, or Hobarlon, the capital of Van Diemen’s Land, 
also has a fine harbor, a,nd is a place of considerable trade and importance. 

1828. Honolulu, the capital of the Sandwich^Islands, consists chiefly of 
native huts, but luis churches, schools, and other nublic edifices, wiiich are 
well built. Its commerce, both in foreign and native ships,is considerable; 
and it is the most important town in Polynesia. 

1829. Papeete, the capital of Tahiti, or Otaheite, is built like Honolulu, 
but has much less commerce. Eimeo is the centre of civilization in the 
Society Islands, and has an academy, a printing office, and manufactories. 

• 

III. TRAVELS IN OCEANICA. 

1830. Your travels in Oceanica must be chiefly by sea. If you embark in 
one of our whaling ships, you will go round Cape Horn, and finally to the 
Sandwich Islands; and thence you may find ships going round among the 
other islands, and back by the Cape of Good Hope. Describe the course 
you will take to visit tJie principal islands, and mention what you shall find 
that is interesting in each. 


ASTRONOMY 


1. On every side of the Earth we see a multitude of stars above us, most 
of which are called fixed stars, because they do not appear to change their 
situation. 

Most of them were classed in constellations, or clusters, like that of the Great 
Bear, (p. 26, several thousand years ago, and still remain in the same places, and 
form the same lines. Only a few thousand .stars can be seen from the Earth by the 
naked eye ; but by the use of telescopes, it is found that there are many millions. 
They are at an immense distance from us, and are supposed by many to be suns, 
enlightening other worlds. 

2. Scattered among these stars, we may perceive a few, distinguished by 

their steady light, which change their place continually, and return at given 
periods in the same path. They are hence called planets, or wanderers ; 
and, when examined with telescopes, they are found to be globes, like our 
Earth. ■ 

3. On further examination, it becomes evident that the Earth is also a 

planet, moving with ten others around the Sun, and forming ^part of the 
Solar System, represented in p. S-Rl. \ ^ 

4. The Earth holds a middle place among the planets ; being at the dis¬ 
tance of 95 millions of miles from the Sun, and moving round it in one year, 
or about 365 days 6 hours. 

5. The revolution of the Earth round the Sun is called the annual, or 
yearly revolution, and causes the change of seasons. Its orbit, or path 
among the fixed stars, is called the ecliptic. 

6. Besides this revolution, the Earth rotates, or turns like a top, or a 
wheel, on its own axis, once in twenty-four hours. This motion causes day 
and ni'^ht, and is called the diurnal, or daily revolution. 

7. In consequence of the annual and diurnal motions of the Earth, the 
Sun appears to move round in the ecliptic every year, and to revolve round 
the Earth every day. But we seem to ourselves to be at rest, and the Sun 
and stars appiar to' be in motion, only because we partake of the motion of 
the Earth, as we do of the rapid motion of a ship or carriage, when every 
thing we see appears to be moving by us. 

8. " We shall find, on calcidation, that we are moving round with the Earth 
in its orbit, at the rate of more tlian 1000 miles a minute; and that we are 
turning with it on its axis, with a velocity of nearly 12 miles in a minute. ■ 

THE SOLAR SYSTEM. J 

9. The situation and orbits of the planets are imperfectly represented in I 

the figure on page 346. t-. ... 

10 The Sun is a vast body, about 1,400,000 times as large as the Earth, 
and communicates light and lieat to the whole solar system. It turns on its I 
axis in 25^ days, as may be seen by observing the spots on its surface wuth 

a telescope. . , ^ . . , 

11 H’here arc eleven primary planets in the system. The seven principal 

nlanets* revolve round the Sun in the following order; Mercury, Venus, 
the F’arth Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, or Uranus. Four others, 
usually called asteroids, —Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, —have been dis- 
covered revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. 

12. Mercury is the smallest planet, so near the Sun that it is seldom seen. 




346 


Ab'fjlONOilV. 



Plantts. 

DUj,mc~ 
ter in 
Miles. 

DUUnice from 
the Sun. 

Daij, or Jtotn- 
tion on the Arts. 

Yi?ar, or 

Revolution round 
the Sun. 

Hourly 
Motion in 
Orbit in 
Miles. 

Mercury, 

3,140 

37,000,000 

24 h. 

52 m. 

88 days. 

or 

3 

mo. 

111,000 

Venus, 

7,700 

08,000,000 

23 ‘‘ 

21 '' 

224 

ii 

or 

U 

U 

81,000 

Earth, 

7.912 

95,000,000 

23 ‘‘ 

56 

3G5 

a 

or 

1' 

year. 

68,000 

Mars, 

4,200 

142,000,000 

24 “ 

39 “ 

687 


or 

2 

ti 

56,(X10 

.lupiter. 

89,0f-(> 

485,000,000 

10 “ 

<( 

4,332 

a 

or 

12 

ii 

20,000 

Saturn, 

79,000 

890,000,000,10 ‘‘ 

29 '' 

10,659 

iC 

or 

29 

iC 

22,000 

Uranus, 

35,0001,800,000,000 

. 


.30,686 

(( 

or 

84. 

ii 

15,000 


(190) The Solar System. 

13. 3fars is a planet much smaller than the Earth, of a red, fiery color, 
and visible to the naked eye. ,hijAtcr is nearly 1300 times larger than the 
Earth, and the largest of all the planets. It is usually surrounded with 
cloudy belts. Saturn is 1000 times larger than the Earth. It is encircled 
by abroad, flat ring, divided into two portions, which revolve round it like 
satellites or moons. Uranus, or Herschel, the most distant of the planets, is 
80 times as large as the Earth, but is seldom seen without a telescope. 

14. All the planets have motions similar to those of the Earth, which are 
exhibited in the following table of their size, situation, and motions. 


Venics is a bright star, ncarlj as large as the Earth. When it nses a short 
time before the Sun, it is called the morning star; when it sets soon alter 
the Sun, the evening star. Both these are neaier than the Earth is to the 
Sun. 



























THE SOLAR SifSTEM. 


i)Ai' AND NICiHT. 


347 


15. The asteroids are very small. Ceres is estimated to be only 160 miles 
in diameter, or occupying about the space of the Island of Hayti. The 
figures in the following engraving exhibit the comparative size of the planets, 
and their usual appearance as seen through a telescope. 



(191) Comparative Size and Appearance of the Planets. 


16. There are 18 secondary planets, or moons, revolving round these pri¬ 

maries, of which the Earth has 1, .Jupiter 4, Saturn 7, and Herschel 6. Our 
moon is only 2180 miles in diameter. It is 240,0(X) miles from the Earth, 
and revolves round it in 27i days. 1 

17. Besides these, more than 400 comets, or stars with bright trains, ha\'r} i 
been seen revolving round the Sun. They move irregularly, sometimes | 
coming very near the sun, and then dying off bey'ond the most distant i 
planet. Only a few have been known to return, and at intervals of from 3 

to 575 years. 

18. The Solar System is an exhibition o/Divine Wisdom and Power sur¬ 
passing our conception. But on comparing the situation and motions of 
the Earth with those of the other planets, we shall ^n<X peculiar evidence of 
providential design, in placing it in the middle of the system, and thus pre¬ 
serving it from tile extremes of light and darkness, of heat and cold, and of 
the length of seasons, which would be injurious, if not destructive, to beings 
constituted like ourselves. 

DAY AND NIGHT. 

19. The side of the Earth vMch is Utrned towards the Snn is in the light, ^ 
and has day, while the opposite side is in the shade, and has night. Heyice, 

as the Earth turns on its axis once in 24 hours, each place has day and 
night alternately 5 but they are not of equal length in all parts of the 
Earth. 

20. Places on the equator are exactly half the time in the light and half 
the time in the shade. The days and nights therefore are always equal, or 
12 hours each, and the Sun always rises and sets at 6 o’clock. 

21. The ecliptic or orbit of the Earth passes through certain constella¬ 
tions, or clusters of stars in the heavens, {see IT 1 ;) and it is among these 
stars that the Sun appears to move round once every year. 

22. The equator is drawn upon the Earth at equal distances from the two 
poles; and therefore the axis of the Earth is perpendicular to the equator. 















































































































































































































































348 


ASTRONOMY. 


2.3, If the equator be extended to the heavens, it will be found that the 
ecliptic runs across the equator in two points, which are called the equinoc¬ 
tial points; and therefore the axis of the earth stands obliquely to the ecliptic, 
as in the following figure. It extends 23° 28' on each side of the equator 
to the tropics. (<§«€ p. 32, TT 33.) 



(192) The Earth in its Orbit. 


At the tropics the ecliptic turns, and the Sun seems to turn, towards the equa¬ 
tor. Hence the name, from the Greek word trepo, to turn. The large circle in 
this figure represents the ecliptic, with the names of the months ; and the Earth 
is drawn with the circles upon it, as it stands in different parts of its orbit, in 
March, June, September, and December. The North Pole, which always points 
to the North Star in the heavens, (see p. 26,) is represented at N. in each figure of 
the Earth, and the South Pole at S. 

24. The Sun appears in the equinoctial points about the 20th of March 
and the 22d of September; and then it shines on each pole at the same 
time, as in figure 190. At these periods, which are called the equinoxes, 
every place on the Earth is half the time in the light, and half the time in 
the shade, and the days and nights are equal all over the world. 

EquiNox is from the Latin word enquus, equal, and nox, night, 

25. But as the axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the ecliptic, each 
pole remains a long time in the light during the summer, after the spring 
equinox, and an equal length of time in the shade in winter, after the au¬ 
tumnal equinox, as may be seen in the point representing the North Pole, 
in figure 190. 

26. In our winter, as in December, the North Pole is in the shade for six 
months, and the South Pole in the light, and cannot change, in this respect, 
as the earth turns. In our summer, as in .lune, the North Pole must be 
constantly in the light, and the South Pole constantly in the shade. 

27. From March to September, or in our summer, it will also be seen in 
the figure that the northern hemisphere is more than half enlightened. 
Hence, as the Earth turns on its axis, every place in the northern hemi¬ 
sphere must be more than half the day in the light, or will have days more 
than 12 hours long. At the same time, the southern hemisphere will be 
less than half enlightened, and every place in it will have days of less than 
12 hours. 


SEASONS. -DIFFERENCE OF TIME. 


349 


^ 28. From September to March, or in our winter, the northern hemisphere 
js less than half enlightened, and the days are less than 12 hours 5 while 
the southern hemisphere is more than half enlightened, and has the longer 
days of summer. 

2‘J. Wkp.n the Sun is over either of the tropics, (as in June or December,) 
it shines 23° 28' beyond the nearest pole, causing day to all countries within 
that distance of the pole for 24 hours at least, and leaving the countries 
within the same distance of the opposite pole, at least 24 hours in darkness. 
The parallels of la^ude drawn at this distance from the poles, are called 
the polar circles — one, the North polar, or Arctic Circle, and the other, the 
South polar, or Antarctic Circle. {See p. 32, IT 36.) 

30. In going/rom the equator to the polar circles, the days of summer are 
from 12 to 21 hours, increasing in length with the latitude. From the polar 
circles to the poles, the days lengthen into weeks and months. In latitude 
67°, the longest day is one month; in latitude 70°,two months; in latitude 
80°, four months; and at the poles, there is six months’ light. 

31. In the apposite hemisphere, or at the opposite season, the nights have 
the same length; the days are proportionally shortened; and the pole has 
six months’ darkness. 

The length of the longest day or night, for every ten degrees of latitude, is 
marked on the left-hand margin of the Chart of the World. 

SEASONS. 

32. The sun is higher at noon in summer than in winter, and shines more 
directly upon us, because (as may be seen in figure 190) the northern hem¬ 
isphere, in which we live, is turned towards the Sun from March to Sep¬ 
tember. At the same time the days are longer; and both causes give us 
most heat at this season. {See Preparatory Lessons, p. xxi. T[ 68 and 69.) 

33. In our cold months, or from September to March, the northern hem¬ 
isphere is turned away from the Sun, the days are shorter, and the heat 
is least. 

51. Hut in our summer, the southern hemisphere is turned away from the 
Sun, and has short days, which produces winter; and in our winter, it is 
turned towards the Sun, and has long days and summer heat. Thus we 
see that the two hemispheres have opposite seasons. 

35. Hence we find that the heat of a place depends chiefly on its distance 
from the equator. The Frigid Zones, around the poles, are the coldest parts 
of the Earth ; the Torrid Zone, near the equator, is the warmest; and the 
zones behveen these are Temperate Zones. {See p. 33.) 

DIFFERENCE OF TIME. 

36. .'Vs the Sun passes from East to West, over the meridians, it is noon 

at the places East of us sooner than with us, and all the hours are earlier. 
In places West of us, noon and all the hours are later. {See Preparatory 
Lessons, p. xx. TF 68—61.) i 

37. As tlie Earth turns on its axis in 24 hours, the Sun appears to pass 
over 360 degrees of longitude in 24 hours, or 15 degrees every hour. 
Hence, lohen we go 15 degrees East or West, we find the time one hour ear¬ 
lier or later than at the place we left; and if we find this difference qf time, 
we know that we have moved 15 degrees. It is in this way that mariners 
find the difference of longitude at sea. {See p. 44, Prob. iv. and v.) 

The Geographical Clock, on the next page, consists of a polar projection of the 
northern hemisphere, of which the meridian of Washington is the central me¬ 
ridian. Some of the most important places are marked on it; and the names are 
placed in a circle around it, in the direction of their respective meridians. 

0:^/^ As the southern part of North America is at the top of the map, places 
East of Washington are at the left hand, and those West, of it at the right hand. 

On the outer circle is marked the hour of the day at each meridian, when it is 
12 o’clock at Washington. The hours run from right to left, at the distance of 15 
degrees, hecause the earth revolves in this direction 15 degrees in an hour. 




350 


ASTRONOMY. 


1. To find the time at any place, when it is 12 o'clock at Washington, 

P'ind the place on the Geographical Clock, and the figure opposite will show 
the hour. If it is east of Washington, it will be some hour after 12 j if west, 
before 12. 

Thus it will be seen, that at London, which is 5 hours east of Washington, it is 
5 o’clock after noon, wlien it is noon at Washington and at Beering’s Straits, 
which is 6 hours loest, it is 6 o’clock before noon. 

2. To find the time corresponding to any hour at Washington, 

Count the number of hours between the given place and Washington. If the 
place is east of Washington, add this number to the time at Washington ; if west, 
subtract it. 

Thus, Owhyhee is 5\ hours west of Washington. When it is 6 o’clock in the 
ihorning at VVashington, subtract .5’,, and you will find it is % of an hour after 
midnight at Owhyhee. Rome is 6 hours east of Washington — and Siam is 12 
— add this to the time at Washington, and you will find it is, at the same hour, 
12 o’clock at noon at Rome, and 6 o’clock in the evening at Siam. 


IS’O Off 



m (Questions. — What is the ditference of time between Washington and New Or- 
leans? Is New Orleans flast or West of Washington? Is the hour there earlier 
" or later than at Washington ? IIow does it ditler from the hour at Boston ? 

When it is noon at Washington, what time is it at Owhyhee? Where is it 
midnight at the same time ? Where is it si.v o’clock in the morning ? Where is 
th it six o’clock in the evening? What time is it then at Canton ? At Calcutta? 
H At Bombay? At Ispahan? At Constantinople? At Jerusalem ? At London 
St and Paris ? At Madeira ? At Rio Janeiro ? At Buenos Ayres ? At Cincinnati ? 
th At Mexico? Astoria? New Z -aland ? Botany Bay ? 

jg Supposing the hour of breakfast to be G o’clock, of dinner 12, and of supper, G 
in the evenmg, vvhat are the people of Rome doing when the president is break¬ 
fasting at Washington? W^hat arc they doing in Siam ? W’^here are they proba¬ 
bly sleeping? W'hat is the difference of time between Otaheite and Boston? 


















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